essays on organizational structure

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9.3 Organizing Your Writing

Learning objectives.

• Understand how and why organizational techniques help writers and readers stay focused.
• Assess how and when to use chronological order to organize an essay.
• Recognize how and when to use order of importance to organize an essay.
• Determine how and when to use spatial order to organize an essay.

The method of organization you choose for your essay is just as important as its content. Without a clear organizational pattern, your reader could become confused and lose interest. The way you structure your essay helps your readers draw connections between the body and the thesis, and the structure also keeps you focused as you plan and write the essay. Choosing your organizational pattern before you outline ensures that each body paragraph works to support and develop your thesis.

This section covers three ways to organize body paragraphs:

• Chronological order
• Order of importance
• Spatial order

When you begin to draft your essay, your ideas may seem to flow from your mind in a seemingly random manner. Your readers, who bring to the table different backgrounds, viewpoints, and ideas, need you to clearly organize these ideas in order to help process and accept them.

A solid organizational pattern gives your ideas a path that you can follow as you develop your draft. Knowing how you will organize your paragraphs allows you to better express and analyze your thoughts. Planning the structure of your essay before you choose supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and targeted research.

Chronological Order

In Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , you learned that chronological arrangement has the following purposes:

• To explain the history of an event or a topic
• To tell a story or relate an experience
• To explain how to do or to make something
• To explain the steps in a process

Chronological order is mostly used in expository writing , which is a form of writing that narrates, describes, informs, or explains a process. When using chronological order, arrange the events in the order that they actually happened, or will happen if you are giving instructions. This method requires you to use words such as first , second , then , after that , later , and finally . These transition words guide you and your reader through the paper as you expand your thesis.

For example, if you are writing an essay about the history of the airline industry, you would begin with its conception and detail the essential timeline events up until present day. You would follow the chain of events using words such as first , then , next , and so on.

Writing at Work

At some point in your career you may have to file a complaint with your human resources department. Using chronological order is a useful tool in describing the events that led up to your filing the grievance. You would logically lay out the events in the order that they occurred using the key transition words. The more logical your complaint, the more likely you will be well received and helped.

Choose an accomplishment you have achieved in your life. The important moment could be in sports, schooling, or extracurricular activities. On your own sheet of paper, list the steps you took to reach your goal. Try to be as specific as possible with the steps you took. Pay attention to using transition words to focus your writing.

Keep in mind that chronological order is most appropriate for the following purposes:

• Writing essays containing heavy research
• Writing essays with the aim of listing, explaining, or narrating
• Writing essays that analyze literary works such as poems, plays, or books

When using chronological order, your introduction should indicate the information you will cover and in what order, and the introduction should also establish the relevance of the information. Your body paragraphs should then provide clear divisions or steps in chronology. You can divide your paragraphs by time (such as decades, wars, or other historical events) or by the same structure of the work you are examining (such as a line-by-line explication of a poem).

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that describes a process you are familiar with and can do well. Assume that your reader is unfamiliar with the procedure. Remember to use the chronological key words, such as first , second , then , and finally .

Order of Importance

Recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that order of importance is best used for the following purposes:

• Persuading and convincing
• Ranking items by their importance, benefit, or significance
• Illustrating a situation, problem, or solution

Most essays move from the least to the most important point, and the paragraphs are arranged in an effort to build the essay’s strength. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to begin with your most important supporting point, such as in an essay that contains a thesis that is highly debatable. When writing a persuasive essay, it is best to begin with the most important point because it immediately captivates your readers and compels them to continue reading.

For example, if you were supporting your thesis that homework is detrimental to the education of high school students, you would want to present your most convincing argument first, and then move on to the less important points for your case.

Some key transitional words you should use with this method of organization are most importantly , almost as importantly , just as importantly , and finally .

During your career, you may be required to work on a team that devises a strategy for a specific goal of your company, such as increasing profits. When planning your strategy you should organize your steps in order of importance. This demonstrates the ability to prioritize and plan. Using the order of importance technique also shows that you can create a resolution with logical steps for accomplishing a common goal.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that discusses a passion of yours. Your passion could be music, a particular sport, filmmaking, and so on. Your paragraph should be built upon the reasons why you feel so strongly. Briefly discuss your reasons in the order of least to greatest importance.

Spatial Order

As stated in Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , spatial order is best used for the following purposes:

• Helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it
• Evoking a scene using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound)
• Writing a descriptive essay

Spatial order means that you explain or describe objects as they are arranged around you in your space, for example in a bedroom. As the writer, you create a picture for your reader, and their perspective is the viewpoint from which you describe what is around you.

The view must move in an orderly, logical progression, giving the reader clear directional signals to follow from place to place. The key to using this method is to choose a specific starting point and then guide the reader to follow your eye as it moves in an orderly trajectory from your starting point.

Pay attention to the following student’s description of her bedroom and how she guides the reader through the viewing process, foot by foot.

Attached to my bedroom wall is a small wooden rack dangling with red and turquoise necklaces that shimmer as you enter. Just to the right of the rack is my window, framed by billowy white curtains. The peace of such an image is a stark contrast to my desk, which sits to the right of the window, layered in textbooks, crumpled papers, coffee cups, and an overflowing ashtray. Turning my head to the right, I see a set of two bare windows that frame the trees outside the glass like a 3D painting. Below the windows is an oak chest from which blankets and scarves are protruding. Against the wall opposite the billowy curtains is an antique dresser, on top of which sits a jewelry box and a few picture frames. A tall mirror attached to the dresser takes up most of the wall, which is the color of lavender.

The paragraph incorporates two objectives you have learned in this chapter: using an implied topic sentence and applying spatial order. Often in a descriptive essay, the two work together.

The following are possible transition words to include when using spatial order:

• Just to the left or just to the right
• On the left or on the right
• Across from
• A little further down
• To the south, to the east, and so on
• A few yards away
• Turning left or turning right

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph using spatial order that describes your commute to work, school, or another location you visit often.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Key Takeaways

• The way you organize your body paragraphs ensures you and your readers stay focused on and draw connections to, your thesis statement.
• A strong organizational pattern allows you to articulate, analyze, and clarify your thoughts.
• Planning the organizational structure for your essay before you begin to search for supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and directed research.
• Chronological order is most commonly used in expository writing. It is useful for explaining the history of your subject, for telling a story, or for explaining a process.
• Order of importance is most appropriate in a persuasion paper as well as for essays in which you rank things, people, or events by their significance.
• Spatial order describes things as they are arranged in space and is best for helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it; it creates a dominant impression.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Top 9 Writing Organizational Patterns

If you are interested in learning about writing organizational patterns, here are some of the top patterns below that are perfect for your next writing project. 

Regardless of whether you are an avid reader or an avid writer, there are numerous patterns of organization that you may spot in writing. Different organizational patterns are helpful in different types of writing, so the proper organizational structure in one piece of writing might not be the same as the correct organizational pattern and another essay.

What are some top writing organizational patterns you may want to incorporate in your work?

1. Sequential Patterns

2. chronological patterns, 3. pros and cons, 4. spatial patterns, 5. compare and contrast patterns, 6. cause-effect patterns, 7. a topical pattern, 8. a problem and solution pattern, 9. a classification pattern.

Sequential patterns are among the most basic of all organizational writing patterns. Essentially, the author takes some information and arranges it in a process. Each section of the writing represents the main step someone has to follow. It is broken up in this way to make it easier for the reader to follow along.

For example, the writer might create an essay describing to someone how to boil water. Then, the writer will break it up into multiple steps. Some of the steps might be as follows:

• Step 1: Get a pot that is large enough to hold water.
• Step 2: Fill the pot with water from the sink.
• Step 3: Place the pot on the stove.
• Step 4: Turn the stove on by igniting it or turning on the electric burner.
• Step 5: Wait until the water begins to bubble. 

Keep in mind that the steps might be much longer than this if the topic is more involved. This is just a basic example of how a writer might use a sequential pattern to describe to someone else how to boil water, painting a mental picture.

One of the most popular patterns you may spot in writing is chronological order. This is relatively straightforward. It is an organization of important events or ideas scattered across time. In general, chronological patterns move forward in history, but there might also be situations where they move backward. Typically, the writer will devote a chapter, a section, or a paragraph to a particular moment in time. Then, the writer will move forward, using transitions from event to event, going down the time order.

For example, the author might want to create a timeline of all the wars in which the United States has been involved. The author may start with the American Revolutionary War, which started in the 1700s. Then, the writer may move forward, covering wars in the 19th century next. This might include the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, the American Civil War, and the Spanish-American war. Finally, the writer may discuss wars of the 20th century, including World War 1, World War 2, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Persian Gulf War. This is one of the most straightforward patterns to understand because the author moves forward in time with each event. 

A list of advantages-disadvantages is a typical organizational pattern that a writer will use, mainly when discussing multiple topics that fall under the same category. The idea is that it makes it easy for readers to follow along as multiple topics are being laid out under the same category. In addition, by looking at each option’s benefits and drawbacks, it is easier for readers to figure out what is right for them.

For example, the writer might be talking about different investment vehicles. Each investment vehicle has its benefits and drawbacks. As an example of how this essay might be laid out, the writer might use the following:

• Stocks: The writer will discuss the pros and cons of investing in individual stocks, using a list of pros and cons.
• Mutual Funds: The writer will use a list to discuss the pros and cons of investing in mutual funds.
• Bonds: The writer will talk about the pros and cons of investing in bonds, with another list of pros and cons.

This organizational pattern makes it easy for the reader to identify the essential points from each category.

Another typical pattern that a writer might use is called a spatial pattern. A spatial pattern is an essay or catalog of different events, people, or existing buildings and specific geographic patterns. Essentially, the writer will use this pattern to paint a mental image for the reader, making it easier for them to figure out how certain areas are laid out. 

For example, if a writer uses a spatial pattern to describe Europe, they might dedicate a section of the essay to different regions. This might include Eastern Europe, which is on the edge of Russia; Central Europe, which might include areas such as Austria and Italy; and Western Europe, which could include France and Spain. The writer might also include Scandinavia, which includes Norway, Sweden, and Finland.

For example, a writer could also use a spatial pattern to divide New York City, making it easier for the reader to understand how the city has been laid out. The writer might break up the essay with a different section focusing on each borough. It might include:

• Manhattan: A description of all of the important points of interest in Manhattan.
• Brooklyn: A description of all the important points of interest in Brooklyn.
• The Bronx: A description of all the important points of interest in The Bronx.
• Harlem: A description of all the important points of interest in Harlem.
• Staten Island: A description of all the important points of interest in Staten Island.

Within each section, the writer might talk about smaller areas, such as the West Side, the Lower East Side, Chinatown, and Little Italy. 

The next popular pattern that a writer might use is called a compare and contrast pattern. As the name suggests, the author will compare and contrast two different topics in multiple ways. For example, if the writer is crafting an essay on sports, then the writer might talk about how the New York Mets and the New York Yankees are different, even though both of them play Major League Baseball. Or, the writer might take a broader view and talk about how the major leagues are different than the minor leagues.

As one specific example, the writer might want to talk about how educational programs are different between community colleges and four-year colleges. Some of the sections of this essay might include:

• Tuition Expenses: The writer will discuss how the cost of traditional college and community college vary.
• Housing: The writer might also discuss how housing situations vary between traditional colleges and community colleges. 
• Variety of Educational Programs: Next, the essay might explore how educational programs are different between traditional colleges and community colleges.
• Job Prospects: Finally, the essay might also explore how job prospects are different for people who graduated from community college or a traditional undergraduate program.

This organizational pattern makes it easy for people to spot the differences between both programs. 

The writer might also elect to go with a cause-and-effect pattern. This is particularly helpful if the writer is taking a look at a historical event or if the writer is trying to push for a specific action that can be used to solve the problem. 

Essentially, the writer can decide to divide the essay into two major sections. The first talks about the causes of that issue, and the second talks about the effects of that event. As an example:

Causes of the Civil War

• Cause 2 

Effects of the Civil War

If the writer is trying to construct a persuasive essay on the causes and effects of the Civil War, this is a very easy way to lay it out.

The other way to lay out this type of essay is to devote one section to each cause and then list the effects under that cause. An example of an essay talking about global warming might be laid out as follows:

Cause of Global Warming 1

Cause of Global Warming 2

Cause of Global Warming 3

The writer is able to see the effect relationship of the essay as it moves forward. 

A topical pattern is one of the most commonly used patterns in all writing. Essentially, this is a great organizational pattern to use if you are having difficulty finding another pattern that will work well. One topic is often broken up into multiple subtopics, making it easier for the reader to follow along.

For example, you might look at an essay about American sports. There are a lot of leagues and teams to discuss, so you might want to lay it out by topic. One suggested organizational pattern could be as follows:

• Teams in the AFC
• Teams in the NFC
• Teams in the Eastern Conference
• Teams in the Western Conference
• Teams in the American League
• Teams in the National League

There are multiple divisions in each conference as well. Therefore, you could break it down further if you would like. For example, if you are talking about teams in the NFC in the NFL, you could discuss the NFC North, the NFC South, the NFC East, and the NFC West in each individual section. 

You may also want to divide your essay into problem-solution patterns. This essay is relatively straightforward. It has two main sections. The first section will discuss a problem. Then, it will talk about all of the reasons why it is such a big problem. Then, in the second section, you will talk about different solutions to that problem, trying to convince the reader to take a specific action.

For example, you might want to write an essay on why diet and exercise are great solutions for overweight people might break up your essay into multiple sections, including:

Problem: Obesity

• Obesity causes self-esteem issues.
• Obesity causes long-term joint pain
• Obesity increases your risk of developing heart attacks and strokes.

Solution: Diet and Exercise

• Everyone can eat a healthy diet and exercise regularly, so it is not that expensive.
• It is a sustainable solution that does not require taking prescription medications.
• It has a much lower risk of leading to complications and side effects. 

Having a formal structure in place can make it easier for your reader to follow along as the effect of various conditions is explained. 

You might also be interested in classifying different items into different categories based on specific defining characteristics. If you have a broader topic that you need to cover, you may want to include specific topics in certain areas based on shared characteristics. 

One example of this type of pattern in action is hurricanes. Suppose you have been tasked to divide some of the most important hurricanes in the history of the United States into different categories. In that case, you may decide to do so by classifying them based on the Saffir-Simpson scale. This is the scale that divides hurricanes based on wind speed. The essay would be categorized as follows:

• Category 1 Hurricanes: List of the most important category 1 hurricanes.
• Category 2 Hurricanes: List of the most important category 2 hurricanes.
• Category 3 Hurricanes: List of the most important category 3 hurricanes.
• Category 4 Hurricanes: List of the most important category 4 hurricanes.
• Category 5 Hurricanes: List of the most important category 5 hurricanes.

You may have more hurricanes in the lower categories because hurricanes that are major hurricanes tend to do more damage. 

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips !

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Organizing Your Argument

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How can I effectively present my argument?

In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative methods —the  Toulmin Method , Classical Method , and Rogerian Method — give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.

Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).

Toulmin Method

The  Toulmin Method  is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in  The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method  is as follows:

Claim:  In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds):  You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge):  In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim. As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in reason.

Backing (Foundation):  Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim:  You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar with the opposing perspective.   If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased (and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Rebuttal:  In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Claim:  Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1:  Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.

Warrant 1:  Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2:  Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2:  Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3:  Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3:  The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.

Counterclaim:  Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging the use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal:  While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method  (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

• your position seems like a reasonable compromise.
• you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method  is as follows:

Introduction:  Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View : Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position:  By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.

Statement of Contexts : Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits:  You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Introduction:  The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to some debate.

Opposing View:  Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  Those parents who support uniforms argue that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified sense of school pride and inclusiveness.

Statement of Your Position : Students should not be required to wear school uniforms. Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express themselves through clothing.

Statement of Contexts:  However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing without the fear of being ostracized.

Statement of Benefits:  Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests, students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present themselves to their peers.

Classical Method

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.

The basic format of the Classical Method  is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.  

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.  

Example of the Classical Method:  

Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide. The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little. Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing a minimum wage job .

Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.

Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage, workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.

Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.

Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the increase would not be great. Additionally,   worries about a cost of living increase must be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking Americans.

Conclusion (Peroratio): If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks.

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• Knowledge Base
• How to structure an essay: Templates and tips

How to Structure an Essay | Tips & Templates

Published on September 18, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction , a body , and a conclusion . But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body.

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Table of contents

The basics of essay structure, chronological structure, compare-and-contrast structure, problems-methods-solutions structure, signposting to clarify your structure, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay structure.

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay structure: making sure to include the right information in each part, and deciding how you’ll organize the information within the body.

Parts of an essay

The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.

Order of information

You’ll also have to consider how to present information within the body. There are a few general principles that can guide you here.

The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the most complex . The body of a good argumentative essay often begins with simple and widely accepted claims, and then moves towards more complex and contentious ones.

For example, you might begin by describing a generally accepted philosophical concept, and then apply it to a new topic. The grounding in the general concept will allow the reader to understand your unique application of it.

The second principle is that background information should appear towards the beginning of your essay . General background is presented in the introduction. If you have additional background to present, this information will usually come at the start of the body.

The third principle is that everything in your essay should be relevant to the thesis . Ask yourself whether each piece of information advances your argument or provides necessary background. And make sure that the text clearly expresses each piece of information’s relevance.

The sections below present several organizational templates for essays: the chronological approach, the compare-and-contrast approach, and the problems-methods-solutions approach.

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The chronological approach (sometimes called the cause-and-effect approach) is probably the simplest way to structure an essay. It just means discussing events in the order in which they occurred, discussing how they are related (i.e. the cause and effect involved) as you go.

A chronological approach can be useful when your essay is about a series of events. Don’t rule out other approaches, though—even when the chronological approach is the obvious one, you might be able to bring out more with a different structure.

Explore the tabs below to see a general template and a specific example outline from an essay on the invention of the printing press.

• Thesis statement
• Discussion of event/period
• Consequences
• Importance of topic
• Strong closing statement
• Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages
• Background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press
• Thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation
• High levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe
• Literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites
• Consequence: this discouraged political and religious change
• Invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg
• Implications of the new technology for book production
• Consequence: Rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible
• Trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention
• Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation
• Consequence: The large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics
• Summarize the history described
• Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period

Essays with two or more main subjects are often structured around comparing and contrasting . For example, a literary analysis essay might compare two different texts, and an argumentative essay might compare the strengths of different arguments.

There are two main ways of structuring a compare-and-contrast essay: the alternating method, and the block method.

Alternating

In the alternating method, each paragraph compares your subjects in terms of a specific point of comparison. These points of comparison are therefore what defines each paragraph.

The tabs below show a general template for this structure, and a specific example for an essay comparing and contrasting distance learning with traditional classroom learning.

• Synthesis of arguments
• Topical relevance of distance learning in lockdown
• Increasing prevalence of distance learning over the last decade
• Thesis statement: While distance learning has certain advantages, it introduces multiple new accessibility issues that must be addressed for it to be as effective as classroom learning
• Classroom learning: Ease of identifying difficulties and privately discussing them
• Distance learning: Difficulty of noticing and unobtrusively helping
• Classroom learning: Difficulties accessing the classroom (disability, distance travelled from home)
• Distance learning: Difficulties with online work (lack of tech literacy, unreliable connection, distractions)
• Classroom learning: Tends to encourage personal engagement among students and with teacher, more relaxed social environment
• Distance learning: Greater ability to reach out to teacher privately
• Sum up, emphasize that distance learning introduces more difficulties than it solves
• Stress the importance of addressing issues with distance learning as it becomes increasingly common
• Distance learning may prove to be the future, but it still has a long way to go

In the block method, each subject is covered all in one go, potentially across multiple paragraphs. For example, you might write two paragraphs about your first subject and then two about your second subject, making comparisons back to the first.

The tabs again show a general template, followed by another essay on distance learning, this time with the body structured in blocks.

• Point 1 (compare)
• Point 2 (compare)
• Point 3 (compare)
• Point 4 (compare)
• Advantages: Flexibility, accessibility
• Disadvantages: Discomfort, challenges for those with poor internet or tech literacy
• Advantages: Potential for teacher to discuss issues with a student in a separate private call
• Disadvantages: Difficulty of identifying struggling students and aiding them unobtrusively, lack of personal interaction among students
• Advantages: More accessible to those with low tech literacy, equality of all sharing one learning environment
• Disadvantages: Students must live close enough to attend, commutes may vary, classrooms not always accessible for disabled students
• Advantages: Ease of picking up on signs a student is struggling, more personal interaction among students
• Disadvantages: May be harder for students to approach teacher privately in person to raise issues

An essay that concerns a specific problem (practical or theoretical) may be structured according to the problems-methods-solutions approach.

This is just what it sounds like: You define the problem, characterize a method or theory that may solve it, and finally analyze the problem, using this method or theory to arrive at a solution. If the problem is theoretical, the solution might be the analysis you present in the essay itself; otherwise, you might just present a proposed solution.

The tabs below show a template for this structure and an example outline for an essay about the problem of fake news.

• Introduce the problem
• Provide background
• Describe your approach to solving it
• Define the problem precisely
• Describe why it’s important
• Indicate previous approaches to the problem
• Present your new approach, and why it’s better
• Apply the new method or theory to the problem
• Indicate the solution you arrive at by doing so
• Assess (potential or actual) effectiveness of solution
• Describe the implications
• Problem: The growth of “fake news” online
• Prevalence of polarized/conspiracy-focused news sources online
• Thesis statement: Rather than attempting to stamp out online fake news through social media moderation, an effective approach to combating it must work with educational institutions to improve media literacy
• Definition: Deliberate disinformation designed to spread virally online
• Popularization of the term, growth of the phenomenon
• Previous approaches: Labeling and moderation on social media platforms
• Critique: This approach feeds conspiracies; the real solution is to improve media literacy so users can better identify fake news
• Greater emphasis should be placed on media literacy education in schools
• This allows people to assess news sources independently, rather than just being told which ones to trust
• This is a long-term solution but could be highly effective
• It would require significant organization and investment, but would equip people to judge news sources more effectively
• Rather than trying to contain the spread of fake news, we must teach the next generation not to fall for it

Signposting means guiding the reader through your essay with language that describes or hints at the structure of what follows.  It can help you clarify your structure for yourself as well as helping your reader follow your ideas.

The essay overview

In longer essays whose body is split into multiple named sections, the introduction often ends with an overview of the rest of the essay. This gives a brief description of the main idea or argument of each section.

The overview allows the reader to immediately understand what will be covered in the essay and in what order. Though it describes what  comes later in the text, it is generally written in the present tense . The following example is from a literary analysis essay on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

Transitions

Transition words and phrases are used throughout all good essays to link together different ideas. They help guide the reader through your text, and an essay that uses them effectively will be much easier to follow.

Various different relationships can be expressed by transition words, as shown in this example.

Because Hitler failed to respond to the British ultimatum, France and the UK declared war on Germany. Although it was an outcome the Allies had hoped to avoid, they were prepared to back up their ultimatum in order to combat the existential threat posed by the Third Reich.

Transition sentences may be included to transition between different paragraphs or sections of an essay. A good transition sentence moves the reader on to the next topic while indicating how it relates to the previous one.

… Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

However , considering the issue of personal interaction among students presents a different picture.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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Module 6: The Writing Process

Essay organization, learning objectives.

• Examine the basic organization of traditional essays

What are some ways that you can organize your essays in college. One standard structure for expository essays is to offer the main idea or assertion early in the essay, and then offer categories of support.

One way to think about this standard structure is to compare it to a courtroom argument in a television drama. The lawyer asserts, “My client is not guilty.” Then the lawyer provides different reasons for lack of guilt: no physical evidence placing the client at the crime scene, client had no motive for the crime, and more.

In writing terms, the assertion is the  thesis sentence , and the different reasons are the  topic sentences . Consider this following example:

• Topic Sentence (reason) #1:  Workers need to learn how to deal with change.
• Topic Sentence (reason) #2:  Because of dealing with such a rapidly changing work environment, 21st-century workers need to learn how to learn.
• Topic Sentence (reason) #3:  Most of all, in order to negotiate rapid change and learning, workers in the 21st century need good communication skills.

As you can see, the supporting ideas in an essay develop out of the main assertion or argument in the thesis sentence.

The structural organization of an essay will vary, depending on the type of writing task you’ve been assigned, but they generally follow this basic structure: The thesis and the topic sentences are all concerned with workers and what they need for the workforce.

Introduction

The introduction provides the reader with context about your topic. You may be familiar with the cliché about how first impressions are important. This is true in writing as well, and you can think of your introduction as that first impression. The goal is to engage the readers, so they want to read on. Sometimes this involves giving an example, telling a story or narrative, asking a question, or building up the situation. The introduction should almost always include the thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs

The body of the essay is separated into paragraphs. Each paragraph usually covers a single claim or argues a single point, expanding on what was introduced in the thesis statement. For example, according to the National Institute of Mental Health, the two main causes of schizophrenia are genetic and environmental. Thus, if you were writing about the causes of schizophrenia, then you would have a body paragraph on genetic causes of schizophrenia and a body paragraph on the environmental causes.

A body paragraph usually includes the following:

• Topic sentence that identifies the topic for the paragraph
• Several sentences that describe and support the topic sentence

Figure 1 . College instructors require more than just “the end” at the close of a paper. Take the time to revisit your thesis statement, bringing all of your claims and evidences together in your conclusion.

• Remember that information from outside sources should be placed in the middle of the paragraph and not at the beginning or the end of the paragraph so that you have time to introduce and explain the outside content
• Quotation marks placed around any information taken verbatim (word for word) from the source
• Summary sentence(s) that draws conclusions from the evidence
• Transitions or bridge sentences between paragraphs.

If you began with a story, draw final conclusions from that story in your conclusion. If you began with a question, refer back to the question and be sure to provide the answer.

A concluding paragraph:

• summarizes final conclusions from the key points
• provides a brief comment on the evidence provided in the paper
• ties in the introduction
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Unit 6: Argumentative Essay Writing

44 Patterns of Organization for Argumentative Essays

There are three typical ways to construct the body of an argumentation essay. Each type meets the expectations for an argumentative essay. The motivation for choosing any particular type, however, is different.

1 “You First ”

This essay is called “You First” because the writer starts with the other side’s arguments and ends with their own arguments. The body begins with a paragraph that outlines the main counterargument. At the end of this paragraph, there needs to be an acknowledgement of the full or partial validity of the opposing viewpoints. After that paragraph, you can begin your arguments for your perspective.

2 “Me First ”

This essay is called “Me First” because the writer starts with their own arguments and ends with the other side’s arguments. The paragraph that outlines the main counterargument comes at the end of the discussion of your arguments. This paragraph is formed and developed exactly the same as the 1st body paragraph in a “You First.” The only difference is that the counterargument/refutation paragraph in “Me First” occurs after one’s own arguments

3 “Point-by-Point ”

In a Point-by-Point essay, each body paragraph lists a single counterargument. After describing this opposing argument, there needs to be a transition before starting the detailed refutation of the counterargument. In the Point-by-Point essay, your refutation serves as your argument of each point you want to make. In other words, you deal with each counterargument separately, whereas “You First” and “Me First” essays group all the counterarguments together and develop one’s own arguments separately.

For this course you are recommended to use the “you first” or “me first” patterns.

Which pattern should I use?

In order to answer this question, you need to answer some questions:

• What are the strongest counterarguments? (It might be helpful to spend some time with a person or people who believe the opposite of you so that you can hear why they believe what they do.)
• What do your readers generally believe about this topic? How strongly do they believe that? (You might need to ask a sample of people what they think about your topic.)

There are three basic scenarios that typically arise:

• Your readers are against your position.
• Your readers are for your position.
• Your readers have not made up their mind yet.

*Which pattern of organization does the writer use in the model essay?

• Introduction
• (Argument 3)
• Counterargument
• Refutation (=Argument 3 or 4)

Point by Point Pattern

• Refutation (= Argument 1)
• Refutation (= Argument 2)
• Refutation (= Argument 3)

You First Pattern

• (Argument 4)

Academic Writing I Copyright © by UW-Madison ESL Program is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Essay on Organizational Structures

An organization’s organizational structure provides the framework for running and planning its activities. The hierarchy, organizational structure, and channels for communication and decision-making make up an organization (“ Organizational Structure ,” 2012). An organization’s performance and capacity to adapt to environmental changes are impacted by its organizational structure. This essay will contrast the benefits and drawbacks of mechanical and organic organizational structures. The gauge, discover, and reflect framework will also be covered.

Mechanistic Structure

The conventional method of organizational design is the mechanical structure. A hierarchical structure with distinct lines of authority and control characterizes it. It is an extremely organized, centralized process in which tasks are divided into distinct roles and responsibilities. The mechanical structure is ideal for organizations with a highly specialized workforce because it emphasizes efficiency and control.

Efficiency:  Mechanistic structures divide work into manageable, efficiently completed components to maximize efficiency and productivity, making it possible to make decisions quickly and help prevent wasting time on useless pursuits. A system in place enables tasks to be completed quickly and efficiently, increasing the organization’s overall effectiveness. It also ensures that resources are used as effectively as possible and that the final product is of the highest caliber.

Control:  By giving one person or group complete control and decision-making power, an organization can have much control over its actions, enabling the adoption of strict standards and the upkeep of output consistency. This structure ensures that those in charge can more effectively implement their vision and goals because decisions are made from the top down (“ Organizational Structure ,” 2012). Mechanistic structures help ensure the organization’s success.

Stability:  Mechanistic structures are highly organized and structured, giving the organization a higher level of stability. As a result, they are less susceptible to disturbances and changes from the outside world, which enables the organization to maintain stability and consistency. Due to its structural design, the organization is protected from outside influences and disruption to the greatest extent possible. This stability enables the organization to carry on operating without the need for significant modifications or changes.

Disadvantages

Rigidity:  Mechanistic structures are rigid and highly structured, and they can be challenging to alter or adapt to changing conditions. As a result, the company might become inert and need help to seize fresh opportunities.

Inefficiency:  If the structures are appropriately managed, they may result in efficiency. Tasks not broken down into manageable parts may take longer than necessary and require more departmental coordination.

Lack of Innovation:  Organizational structures may need more innovation by making the company too committed to upholding the status quo and closed to novel concepts, potentially leading to a lack of creativity and making it harder for the company to remain competitive.

Organic Structure

An alternative to the mechanical structure is the organic structure. A decentralized structure with adaptable roles and responsibilities best describes it. It is a flexible strategy emphasizing employee innovation and creativity (“ Organizational Structure ,” 2012). The organic structure prioritizes cooperation and teamwork and is ideal for businesses demanding innovation.

Flexibility:  Organic structures are designed to be more flexible, allowing for greater autonomy and creativity and enabling the organization to quickly adapt to changing circumstances and take advantage of new opportunities.

Innovation:  Greater innovation can result from organic organizational structures because they are more flexible and unrestricted by strict rules and regulations. Greater creativity may result from this, supporting the company’s ability to compete.

Collaboration:  Roles and responsibilities need to be more clearly defined in organic structures, which can increase departmental collaboration. Increased communication and problem-solving may result from this.

Inefficiency:  If organic structures are appropriately managed, they can result in efficiency. With clearly defined roles and responsibilities, tasks might be finished on time, and departmental coordination might improve.

Lack of Control:  Organic organizational structures can lack control because they are less centralized and less concerned with upholding the status quo. This results in inconsistent output and a lack of organization-wide discipline.

Uncertainty:  There may be uncertainty as the organization needs to be more structured and unpredictable with organic structures, resulting in the absence of predictability and making it challenging to make long-term plans.

Gauge, Discover, and Reflect Framework

The gauge, discover and reflect framework creates an effective organizational structure. Three steps make up the procedure: gauge, discover, and reflect. Organizations assess their current environment and gain an understanding of their current situation in the first step (“ Organizational Structure ,” 2012). Organizations identify the ideal situation and plan to get there in the second step. Organizations review their progress in the third step and make any necessary modifications.

The gauge, discover and reflect framework’s primary benefit is its future-oriented approach. Organizations can use the process to plan and create strategies to reach their objectives. The process also encourages organizations to evaluate their performance and adjust as necessary, encouraging ongoing development and keeping businesses on course.

The main disadvantage of the gauge, discover and reflect framework is its complexity. The process requires significant time and resources and may not be feasible for smaller organizations. The process also requires organizations to clearly understand their current situation and desired state, which can take time.

Organizational Chart

A sample organizational chart for a Pharmaceutical Company with a Functional Departmentalization Structure is shown in Figure 7.6. An overview of the Pharmaceutical organization’s structure, including its hierarchy and lines of authority, is given in this chart. The organization’s three primary levels comprise the board of directors, senior management, mid-management, and line management (“ Organizational Structure ,” 2012). Each level contributes to the organization’s success and has distinct roles and responsibilities.

A hospital organizational chart is shown in Figure 7.7. This diagram gives a broad overview of the hospital’s organizational structure, including its hierarchies and power relationships. The organization’s four primary levels are the Board of Directors, the Medical Director, the Nursing Director, and the Clinical Staff (“ Organizational Structure ,” 2012). Each level has specific tasks and obligations, and they all work together to make the hospital successful.

Any organization must have a clear organizational structure. Performance and the organization’s capacity to adapt to environmental changes are impacted. This essay has contrasted the benefits and drawbacks of mechanical and organic organizational structures. The gauge, discover, and reflect framework has also been covered. Finally, two examples of organizational charts have been given, one for a hospital and the other for a school district. To ensure their success, organizations must carefully consider their organizational structure.

Organizational Structure . (2012). 2012books.lardbucket.org. https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/management-principles-v1.1/s11-02-organizational-structure.html

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Organizational Structure, Essay Example

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The organizational structure that should be adopted by companies is one that will maximize the firm’s performance by attaining balance between the technical and the social requirements. Since an organization entails coordination of activities amongst different stakeholders of the company, there is the need to develop powerful communication network and make sure that there is apparent understanding of interdependencies and relationships among the different members of the organization (Baligh, 2006). This will make the organization process simple and meet the objectives of the organization in a cost-effective manner. The system managers in a given organization should ensure that the managers are allocated different responsibilities in their different departments of the company and their responsibilities coordinated by the systems managers.

Organizational change is a tough activity to undertake, therefore, it is advisable to make announcement after consulting all the stakeholders in the company. Making announcements without informing all the members who will be affected by the announcement will spark some resistance. There is need before making any announcement to answer employees’ questions as well as responding to their issues and communicating all the elements contained in the announcement. Any appointment of the manager will be made during the announcement, which after consulting the entire major stakeholders in the company (Baligh, 2006).

While restructuring the organizational structure of the company it is essential that system managers invite all the stakeholders of the company and other consultants. This will ensure that feasible management decisions are made to avoid any conflict that may arise while implementing the management decisions.

In order to train people in the company concerning the organizational structure of the company, there is need to undertake it in an outside seminars. Outside seminars will eliminate the bore down on the usual environment and will impact the trainees on matters related to organization of the company (Hall & Tolbert, 2005).

The matrix organization structure has many complicated and it is not simple to adopt it. In this structure the organization is divided as per the functions and their services/products. For example, a company which produces consumer goods may have three functional divisions: personal care, foods, and cleaning products. In the same company, it may have three functional divisions, which include marketing, research and development, and distribution (Baligh, 2006). Therefore, every individual in the company serves two divisions, one product, and functional division. Consequently, this structure is confusing to both the employees and the managers. The matrix structure is extremely encouraging of knowledge sharing and collaboration between divisions. The matrix structure is not devoid of challenges, though. Since workers in a matrix organization report to two departments, there might be conflicts in their responsibilities.

Downfall of functional managers arises when these managers do not understand their responsibilities where their functions are not well defined in the organization. This will eventually lead to potential conflicts, which will affect their performance. Downfall among the functional managers develops poor reporting systems that do not meet the communication structures set by the company. This is true for the situation of matrix structure that has not clear structures. In some cases, the functional managers can delegate some management roles to inexperienced staff leading poor performance of tasks or projects being undertaken by the firm. Therefore, lack of understanding of their roles by the functional managers is the leading cause of downfall because conflicts always arise in such circumstances (Baligh, 2006).

Baligh, H. H. (2006). Organization structures: Theory and design, analysis and prescription . New York, NY: Springer.

Hall, R. H., & Tolbert, P. S. (2005). Organizations: Structures, processes, and outcomes. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hall.

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Essay: Organisational Structures: An Overview

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INTRODUCTION AND DEFINATION OF ORGANIZATION According to the (council dictionary fourth edition, p 1103) organisation means means union organization comprising parts and other people in a body (association, corporation, etc.) for specific purposes (mutual interest ). According to (Professor Schein (1973), the organization serves as a rational adjustment of human activity in order to achieve the goals set by the division of labor, and also functions through authoritative hierarchy ) . (Ralph Davis (1951) also quote that the organization is a group of a number of a group of large men who worked under one head or manager to achieve an objective) Chester Barnard in his book, “The Function of the Executive” published by Harvard University Press, 1938, said that the organization is a system of personal power activity, consciously coordinated to achieve organsation goal. (Ralph M. Stogdill, the author of “Dimensions of Organizational Design” output of Pittsbury University Press, 1966,) defines the organization as a system of work that is done with structure that contains position and feelings are shaped and determined in advance of the role and the position filled by actors or workers. However what is important in the definition of organization is that it is a group that has certain parts in it which consists of a group of people who work together and help each other and their surroundings are interwined with each other in order to achieve the objectives and goals of individuals, groups or organization. Based on the chart, the Department of YAYASAN TERENGGANU has established the functional structure of different tasks or work to achieve the objectives and goals of the plan. Refering to a functional structure that has formed above, the Director General of YAYASAN TERENGGANU has the highest function power where he is responsible for administering and directing an organization with established policies, rules, working methods, making legal advise, coordinate the activities of the organization, department or unit / interior and goals of the organization , There are two parts function under the direct order Director General which is the Deputy Director (Operations) and Director General (Development) where both the function serves as chairman of the unit / section below. The parts have different functions or tasks workflow. In addition, the functional structure is also designed to enable many individuals with expertise and experience in controlling and supervising the work of each taskforce . Besides, it can provide opportunities for member organizations to learn from other people and become more efficient in their job. Thus, indirectly it has facilitated the process of controlling and adjusting the good work. In addition, the functional structure has been set up to facilitate the work and service operation which is designed to run more smoothly. In addition, the functional structure serves as the focus and gather members or employees to facilitate organisational needed skills and use certain skills where the staff are needed. This functional structure allows the division of labor as a whole and indirectly facilitate the process of communication and interaction that can improve the ability and efficiency in producing the best technique in performing its obligations and is the best way to resolve any problem Moreover, it also facilitates the performance of some top managers know- how divisions, units or departments within an organization. The work done or carried as a whole can be adjusted for all activities and skills will be classified or grouped in one place / divisions under one head. In addition, the division function makes supervision easier because each unit has a chief and specific skills. In addition, the function can be used according to the change of the work, fast and effectively done

THE BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE 1) The task of supervision becomes easier because each head of department has and equipped with specific skills. 2) Any functional problem between units, departments and divisions can be easily identified and brought to attention immediately 3) Resources can be used efficiently 4) The functions and individual position is clear. 5) Expertise, knowledge, skills and experience can be consolidated or combined among individuals.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE 1) The response time might be slow and interupted because of waiting above from higher authority 2) It does not encourage innovation between staff and its perspective of view is narrow 3) Recaiving feedback may be slow because of the units, departments and divisions current un-done task 4) It contributes unto the lack of communication between units, departments and divisions. 5) It is weak in addressing all individual needs because of the slowness might occured in terms of action plan that can leads to un-achievable organisational objectives

Retrieved from : http://www.airasia.com/iwov-resources/my/common/pdf/AirAsia/IR/annual-report-2007b.pdf1.2 THE GEOGRAFIC STRUCTURE OF AIR ASIA ORGANISATIONAL BRANCHES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

The organizational structure of geography divide the workers by geographical area designated as below at different part of its bracnches operation . It was formed on the request of customers who are far away or outside an organization’s operations center. The organizational structure of geography in operation among different staff is responsible for carrying out business activities in designated locations. The chart below shows an example of the organization of geographical structure adopted by The Air Asia Management . At below of the image, I also present the advantages and disadvantages of the organizational structure of geography. In this geographic structure, units and divisions based on the places and the geographical area. This structure is suitable when companies or offices operate in many different geographical areas in which the state, religion and country. In addition, the geographical structure is the coordination of work and workers in the unit or where different parts are all responsible for each of the organization or activity in a specific geographical area. Based on the geographical structure chart of the Air Asian Management , it has expanded its production in some specific geographical area. The advantage gained is the company able to expand its business across borders including financial markets, social relationships and the resulting product or products to the local market. In addition, the company is able to foster a closer relationship between places worldwide. The company is also able to expand the understanding and friendship between the peoples of the world with opportunities for personal conversion that is progressively emerged. Thus indirectly the company has formed or able to meet its own slogan which is “Now, Everyone Can Fly”. In addition, the company is also able to improve the standards prescribed or used in the ranking of global requirements such as the standards prescribed or used in the ranking of global requirements such as copyright law. The company on the other hand is also able to shape the universal’s value and get the technology needed to help in spreading its market (marketing) throughout the world. The company is also conducting management activities between the border and the processes of development which will be adopted when the emergence of a global market in the future. In addition, these companies are also more frequent use of advanced technologies because it often built connection or get connected between the border and to develop a global telecommunications infrastructure

ADVANTAGES OF GEOGRAFIC STRUCTURE 1) The whole organisation is able to use the expertise of all staff in ‘worldwide’ speaking according to the geographical location of the organization. 2) Products and services can be produced and marketed to different countries thus, make marketing job easier and effective 3) It is able introduce the organization to the world. 4) The organization becomes larger. 5) ) It can reduce organisation costs by putting the resources of the organization closer to the geographical area specified.

DISADVANTAGES OF GEOGRAFICAL STRUCTURE 1) There might be difficulty in coordinating the departments in the geographical area because its location that isfar from each other.

2) Lack of control might occur to each geographical department of the organization

3) Redundancies can happen

4) It can not guarantee the full loyalty of employees to the organisation

5) The existence of a change in products ( travelling ) and services as cultural factors, physical and weather

Retrieved from : http://kamarularnizam.blogspot.com/2015/02/contoh-pbs-pengajian-perniagaan.html

1.3 THE PRODUCT STRUCTURE OF SAMSUNG COMPANY The product is the output of an organization that can be produced in the form of goods or service . This refers to the coordination of work between workers in a unit or the other. This means each unit hold different responsibility to produce the output of products or services that have been set. The advantage of this section is to allow employers and employees to broaden their experience and expertise in relation to the overall activities of the products or services to be offerd. Accordingly, this allows management to assess the performance of work done in each work unit. From the image of product structure below , SAMSUNG company is capable of designing and producing a wide range of different products which generally meet the needs of everyone. All of these products are produced in different part or unit of work and function. Each division will be headed by a chairman and a chief that is responsible for coordinating the work or production activities as well as other activities such as purchasing, marketing and distribution of any products. Products produced by SAMSUNG company headed by a chairman with responsibility to ensure the product is produced in accordance with the criteria set and ensure marketing, distribution is done correctly. Thus working to produce each product is easy because each product will be distributed to the head that will manage it and supervise it The separation of individual products and these products have facilitated the production of such products. This separation is important because it can generate and collect ideas and brilliant creative in producing these products to market s. Each product has a function, purpose, use, benefits and advantages of its own. The resulting product is equipped with features such as it is psysicalll attractive, colorful, and the materials used to form the product . ( in eaxample: how a new I-Phone is formed with its colourful structure and its function) Apart from the physical characteristics SAMSUNG companies also produce products based on non-physical characteristics such the image, concept and its flexibility to use. These features make the users and buyers interested in purchasing. With the diversity of the products it can also solve the needs of purchasers or users and the importance of such a requirement in other words, the higher term needs of a person, the higher the consumer is willing to buy The company further then makes high quality products and good price comparable with other competitors after a thorough discussion of each of the products made

THE BENEFITS OF PRODUCTS STRUCTURE 1) Managers and employees can develop their talents, their experience and expertise in product development activities. 2) Managers in every department can monitor the activity of each unit and staff in the production of the product under operation. 3) A very clear lines of responsibility between departments. 4) The structure of the product is very suitable for large-sized organizations. 5) It is appropriate for organizations that produce various kind of products

THE DISADVANTAGES OF PRODUCTS STRUCTURE 1) The Manager is focused only in products management 2) There is a lack of communication between departments and its staff 3) The cost of the operation is big because each department has its own managers and experts. 4) It requires a high amount of workforces . 5) It does not promote cooperation which is a very important value because each department is of different expertise

Retrieved from : http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/rational/library/apr05/hanford/

1.4 MATRIX STRUCTURE OF AN ORGANISATION DOING SITE PROJECT( IBM INTERNATIONAL COMPANY

Matrix structure is a result of two or more of the combined organization at the same time and the matrix structure is suitable for use when an organization has to handle a large project or task at a time. It is very complicated and complex structure as of individuals from different organizational structures work together to control and ensure the success of a project to achieve the intended purpose. There are some factors that distinguish this matrix structure that differentiates with other structures such workers report and work-related contact of two ifferent supervisors or managers. “Matrix structure developed as a way to improve horizontal coordination and information sharing” (Richard. L Daft, 2008). Managers have a responsibility to ensure the success of the projects undertaken while the departments of other acts to maintain technical competence in their work. (Harold Kerzner, 2003) also quote that there were certain rules that exist for the construction of a matrix structure 1) “participant must spend full time on this project to ensure the loyalty” 2) “there must be good communication channels between managers and independent access” 4) “there must be a quick and effective methodto resolve the conflict ”

For organizations like this ( image 1.4 ) that are experts iin commissioning employees from different units and parts to perform tasks for one or more projects led by a project manager. The project was carried out on a temporary or contract where its members consist of different functional departments that collaborate in carrying out the project. In this structure, the manager will be responsible to his supervisor or the head. There are lots of advantages to be obtained. Including the presence of matrix functions provide flexibility (flexibility) to the organization. Besides, it enable the employee to discipline themselves to do two or more tasks provided with full responsibility. It also stimulates the matrix function of co-operation between the employees and other employees in two or more work done. Among other advantages derived from this organizational structure is that they can learn new skill at one time during the working process. Matrix organizational structure also allows them to transfer skills to the other participant workers to the areas that are and this in turns help when desperation of skills workes are in demand in certain areas. In addition, the matrix structure of this organization can strengthen the relationship between each worker because they are connected and can carry out their duties in accordance with the requirements set. This organizational matrix structure will also be able to further develop desired goals and is of good use when the organisation need to use two or more employees to perform two or more tasks / work in an organosation ADVANTAGES OF MATRIX STRUCTURE IN AN ORGANISATION 1) It encourage the staff to use resources more effectively. 2) It provides more accurate and extensive information. 3) Collaboration between disciplines and expertise is available to all sections. 4) Flexibility and adaptation to the changing environment. 5) It fosters the spirit of cooperation which is an important asset for all organisation

THE DISADVANTAGES OF A MATRIX STRUCTURED’S ORGANISATION 1) Confusion can happen because there are two directions. 2) It can be a complicated approach because instructions can come between the two sides of different departments 3) More meetings and discussions need to be held to determine action plan 4) Distribution of resources becomes difficult when many projects are carried out simultaneously. 5) There will be a dominant power struggle when there are managers who are more prominent.

Each organization has a clearly established objectives and goals of its own. In general, the organizational chart has been used by many organizations to assist their operations. Without careful planning and the right implication or action plan, the organization would not be able to operate at the level best to achieve the goals set. It also requires knowledge and efficient management of the organization is to ensure great success. In short every organization should take into account every factors either internal or external to make sure every task is done accordingly and smoothly in line with the goals set

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Essay on Organizational Culture

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Organizational Culture: Essay Introduction

Project management & organizational design, the importance of culture in an organization: formal management vs parent company, organizational culture: essay conclusion.

Culture in an organization refers to the values, beliefs, history and attitudes of a particular organization. Culture also refers to the ideals of an organization that dictate the way members of the organization relate to each other and to the outside environment.

An organization’s culture defines its values; the values of an organization refer to the ideology that the members of an organization have as pertains their goals and the mechanisms to be used to achieve these goals. The organization’s values map out the way employees are required to behave and relate to each other in the workplace (Allan, 2004).

There is a very important need to develop healthy cultures in all organizations whether they are religious, commercial or institutional. The culture of an organization determines how it is perceived both by its own employees and its stakeholders. The managers of an organization are said to be able to influence the culture of the organization. This can be done by the implementation of various policies that lead to a culture change.

Many organizations have two types of cultures, the culture that management wants to enforce and a culture that dictates the relationships of the employees among each other. Many institutions have been found to have a persistent and hidden culture among the employees. This is the biggest task to organizational management; how to replace the employee culture with the desired culture (Young, 2007).

There are two types of culture; namely strong culture and weak culture. Strong culture is whereby the actions and beliefs of the employees are guided by the values of the company. Such a culture ensures smooth and efficient flow of an organization’s activities. Strong cultures result in successful and united organizations.

Weak culture on the other hand refers to instances where the activities of the employees are not guided by the values of the company. A weak culture results in the need for a strict administration that is bureaucratic so as to ensure that the company’s activities flow well. Weak cultures result in increased overheads and under motivated employees.

Fig. 1: Organization culture (Burke, 1999).

There are five dimensions of an organization’s culture namely power distance, risk taking tendencies, gender issues and employee psychology. The power distance aspect refers to the mentality among the employees on who wields more power and how much power they wield.

This will vary among organizations as some have more powerful managers as compared to others. Risk taking tendencies refers to the willingness of the employees and the organization to take risks in an attempt to grow and improve (Jack et al, 2003). Employee psychology on the other hand is an aspect that covers issues such as individualism and collectiveness mentalities in an organization. Companies that have a collective psychology have been found to work and do well as compared to individualistic ones.

The individualistic psychology has been found to cause a lack of coordination and flow of activities in organizations. Lastly the gender dimension refers to the mentality of an organization’s employees towards members of the male and female genders. Companies that view women as weaker and disadvantaged sexes have been found to discriminate among each other and result in a reduction of the employee cooperation levels (Jack et al, 2003).

There are four types of cultures in modern day organizations, role cultures, power cultures, person cultures and task cultures. Role cultures exist in organized and systematic organizations where the amount of power that an employee has is determined by the need that they fulfill in the organization.

Power cultures are those that have a few powerful individuals who are required to drive and direct the rest of the organization. Person cultures are cultures that exist when an organization’s employees feel superior to the company; this is a common culture in most law firms and firms that are formed by individual professionals who merge with others to form organizations. A tasks culture is a culture that is geared towards accomplishing tasks and doing things.

It is very important to understand the culture of an organization so as to enable an organization to map out the type of management that suits it. Culture as mentioned, is the accepted standard in which the employees of an organization relate to each other and to the stakeholders.

There are several factors that affect the culture of an organization. These include technological exposure, environmental conditions, geographical situation, organizational rules and procedures and influence of organizational peers on a subject. Such factors affect the culture of an organization and in the long run its management structure (Johnstone et al, 2002).

Organizational cultures can have both positive and negative effects on the organization. Negative and unwanted cultures are those that oppose change in an organization. These cultures have the tendency of inhibiting the innovation and implementation of change in an organization. Therefore the understanding of an organization’s culture can be used to determine:

• Why certain projects of the organization have failed or are failing
• Aspects of the culture that hinder innovation and change
• What needs to corrected so as to improve how the organization operates
• The origin of certain culture within an organization
• Measures that can be taken so as to introduce new culture or improve on the current culture

An in depth understanding of an organization’s culture is important so as to allow project managers and other managers to affect the mode in which activities are carried out. To influence the performance of the organization an understanding of its cultures is very necessary so as it enables the management to filter its employees and choose performers from non performers (Johnstone et al, 2002).

The proper understanding of organizational culture and its use in deciding a suitable management structure cannot be stressed further. The success of a project depends on how it is managed. There are three major types of project management namely; project, functional and matrix management structures.

Functional management refers to the type of management that focuses on specialty areas and skills. The departments and responsibilities are determined by the skills of the members. There is vertical and horizontal communication between the departments. To allow operation of all arms of the organization bureaucratic means are used so as to ensure smooth flow of the business.

This type of management tends to reduce operational costs and encourage the specialization of labour. Specialization in turn leads to better efficiency and standardization of activities. Disadvantages of the functional approach include the integration of budgets, operational plans and procedures into the project activities making it cumbersome to implement (Kloppenborg, 2009).

Fig.1: Functional project management (Young, 2007).

Project based organization on the other hand is whereby the activities of a company are organized according to its ongoing projects. This type of management is based on the objectivity principle that emphasizes the importance of solid objectives in improving the efficiency of an organization’s processes.

This principle is used in scenarios that require the efficient management of projects that involve activities from different disciplines e.g. medicine, engineering, law.

The advantages of such management techniques include the fact that power and responsibility is decentralized and is carried out by managers of different teams. Such a management technique also allows for the proper utilization of time, leads to reduced cost and enhanced quality levels. Such a management technique is suitable for certain company profiles and cultures, for example:

• Management of large projects and organizations that require the delegation of responsibilities
• Situations with restricted cost and specification parameters
• Situations that require the coordination and completion of projects from different but interrelated disciplines
• In cultures that value responsibility and accountability of ones actions / decisions
• Cultures that encourage communication among all management levels

Fig. 2: Example of a project based management (Allan, 2004).

The project based management structure also faces a few limitations like any other structure. Limitations include the inability of a project manager to mobilize all the resources of a company as he has direct control of only what falls under his area of specialty. Employees and managers of such projects have been found to become slack towards the termination of projects due to the fear of losing their jobs once their projects have been completed (Kloppenborg, 2009).

Due to the limitations of both the operational and functional management structures the matrix was developed. This structure combines both structures to form a hybrid structure. In this type of structure there are two types of managers, namely functional and operational who work together in the same system.

The functional managers are responsible for the distribution of resources in their specialty departments and the operational managers coordinate and manage the activities of their departments. The functional managers are also responsible for overseeing all the technical decisions that fall under their departments.

This method of management has its advantages such as: the project manager oversees all activities that fall under his department. He has all authority and power and thus this eliminates the wastage of time as a result of quarrels and conflicts among the top levels of an organization.

Secondly the manager is able to use organization resources in facilitating the execution of the intended goals and objectives of the company. Disadvantages include the conflicts and coercion between project managers and functional managers that is bound to occur in such a setting. This kind of relationship has an eventual effect on employee motivation as it often results in the demoralization of employees (Young, 2007).

Fig. 3: Matrix management structure (Burke, 1999)

There are various factors that are considered when choosing the management structure of a project. These include the type of activities to be carried out, their importance / order of priority, the human skill required, the amount of time needed and the resources that are required to accomplish the set targets.

Situations that require extensive cooperation and interaction of the functions of an organization require matrix types of management. However there is no optimum type of organization and the organization must strive to come up with solutions to its unique needs and situations.

For a project to be well managed a healthy culture of communication must be developed. Communication theories propose that the project manager should always be like the hub of a bicycle. This means that the project manager acts as a focal point through which suggestions and results are received from various stakeholders.

The project manager also acts as the supporting point for the communication wheel. It is therefore very important for project managers to assist in maintaining a good communicative culture within the organization (Burke, 1999).

Factors such as nature of businesses in which the organization is in, size of projects and type of projects will also have a strong impact on the type of management structure that an organization may use.

Formal management has an overall effect on the operations of an organization. The type of management that an organization has ultimately affects how its activities are carried out. Formal management is important in an organization as it serves as a foundation on which an organization’s goals and principles are guided. There are various guidelines that dictate the behavior and characters of managers in formal systems.

Managers in formal managements are required to have high integrity / moral standards, should be an effective communicators and listeners of others. Managers serve as the basis through which a formal management system is enforced. The project manager should also relate well with people.

He should have the ability to motivate and influence his workers positively. The project manager is also bestowed with the responsibility of ensuring that all aspects and stakeholders of a project work together for the common good of the organization. The manager is also responsible for setting time frames and ensuring that the project adheres to the set schedules.

This serves the purpose of ensuring that there is timely flow of an organization’s activities. Project managers are also required to make assessment of risks that could affect a project and try to manage the risks. In summary, project managers make up the backbone of any formal project management system and the performance of any project depends on the managers themselves (Burke, 1999).

There are three distinct characteristics that define a formal management structure; formality, the presence of groupings and the implementation of various systems. There exist rules and regulations that govern the relationships of the members of the organization. These rules also guide the reporting mechanisms of the members and the responsibilities / power which each member holds. These rules and regulations form the basis of all relationships and activities within the organization.

Formal organizations also group their members into teams and taskforces that are designed to suit various needs within the organization. For example accountants will usually be grouped together, designers with fellow designers and so forth. The groupings form departments and many departments form the organization.

However formal management has been said to be a very rigid mechanism by which an organization / project should be kept in check. This is because failure on the part of the managers would result in the total collapse of the organization. This is because managers are expected to provide guidance, direction and ensure that all members perform their duties.

Culture on the other hand is a better driver as it does not need to be enforced by anyone. Culture is self driven and once the members of an organization have adopted a desirable culture they will conduct themselves in accord to the culture without being supervised by a manager (Johnstone et al 2002).

Culture is also a better means of ensuring that a project is completed as it allows people to go out of the set boundaries and make innovations. Culture driven projects are better as they allow for unified and independent thinking at the same time. Whereas a formal management structure relies on the manager to make decisions a culture driven project accepts all decisions as long as they fall under the culture boundaries of the organization.

Formal management structures are slow and time consuming. This is because all major decisions and control is dependent on the managers. This leads to a very slow decision making process as the managers have to receive reports from members, deliberate on the reports and then give their recommendations. In cases where the manager is slow or is not presence this hinders the further development of the project (Young, 2007).

Many organizations that employ the formal type of management usually group their employees into departments. The departments are usually made up of people with common skills and areas of expertise. However such departmental setups hinder the exchange and sharing of ideas between people of different areas of expertise.

Due to the formal setup members from different departments lack a common factor that would enhance cooperation between the departments. This leads to poor coordination between the departments. In culture driven organizations, the members are unified by the common culture and this enhances the cooperation levels of the employees. Culture driven projects are therefore much more organized and have a better flow of activities as compared to formal projects (Kloppenborg, 2009).

Formal management of projects requires the mapping out and development of clear cut systems that will ensure the smooth flow of the project. These systems are essential in ensuring efficient execution of the project and its activities. Culture driven projects however do not need such a system so as to run smoothly. The culture itself forms a dynamic system through which all the activities are executed effectively.

Strategic management is a major component of formal management systems. It involves the science and methodologies of formulating cross functional parameters that enable an organization to achieve its objectives. Strategic management involves the development of missions and visions, mapping out of objectives and the making of critical decisions for the company (Allan, 2004).

Projects in formal management are stepping stones on which a firm uses to achieve its goals and objectives. The project development processes of a firm are driven by its strategic development goals and objectives. Examples of strategic elements include mission, objective, goals, programs and workable strategies.

Formal management is however beneficial as it promotes proper and sober decision making as compared to culture based management. This is because decision making and planning activities in a formal management are usually done after careful consideration and assessment. Culture based management is however prone to errors and misguided actions due inadequate consideration and thinking.

From the study it is evident that culture is an important aspect of any organization. Culture has been found to affect the behavioral attitudes of a company’s employees and the manner through which these attitudes are manifested. The strong impacts of culture have resulted in the need for managers to find ways to affect the culture of their employees and of the work places.

By influencing the culture of an organization the managers are therefore able to influence the way the organization operates. Culture is an unsaid norm which the members of an organization abide to (Jack et al, 2003).

Organizations implement different types of organization structures. The type of organization structure implemented depends on the size and project characteristics. The type of project management has an effect on the eventual delivery of the project. The study has shown that there is no perfect method of management.

Managers of projects are therefore required to assess and identify the appropriate structure for their specific conditions. Project management structures have a great effect on the quality and effectiveness of the organization’s activities (Allan, 2004).

The study has brought to light the importance of proper culture in an organization. Culture has been found to be a better determinant of employee behavior as compared to formal management. Formal management is dependent on the enforcement of those in authority / wield power.

Culture on the other hand is enforced by the members themselves as they are part and pertinent of the culture. Formal management has also been found to be excessively bureaucratic and procedural and thus its implementation is rather cumbersome and expensive. Culture has therefore been found as the most appropriate way of managing a project.

Allan, B., 2004. Project Management: tools and techniques for today’s ILS professional. London: Facet Publishing.

Ashish, D., 2010. Project management Module. Hull: University of Hull.

Burke, R., 1999. Project Management, Planning and control Techniques. Chichester: Wiley.

Jack, M. & Mentel, S., 2003. Project Management: A Managerial Approach. New Jersey: Wiley and Sons.

Johnston, R. Chambers, S. & Slack, N., 2002. Operations management . Essex: Pearson Publishers.

Kloppenborg, T., 2009. Project management A Contemporary. Chicago: Xavier University.

Young, T., 2007. The Handbook of Project Management, A practical Guide to Effective Policies and Procedures . Washington: Kogan Page publishers.

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