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How To Use Abbreviations in Academic Writing

November 3, 2022 | Blog

Cheat sheet

No time to read? Here’s the short version:

• Avoid contractions like won’t, can’t, they’re, it’s .
• The first time you mention a phrase that can be abbreviated, spell it out in full and provide the abbreviation in parentheses. Use only the abbreviation thereafter.
• Only abbreviate phrases that occur three or more times in your paper.
• Avoid abbreviations in titles, headings, the abstract, and the reference section.
• Use the standard abbreviations you find in reputable dictionaries for months, personal titles, countries and states, and some Latin phrases.

What’s an abbreviation?

Abbreviation is an umbrella term for a shortened version of a longer word or phrase. There are four types of abbreviations:

• Contraction: The result of combining two words into one word with an apostrophe. For example, don’t is a contraction of do not.
• Shortening: Shortened words in which a part of the word (usually the beginning or the end, but occasionally both!) has been dropped. They may appear as words in their own right, such as app for application, ad for advertisement, and flu for influenza. They may also appear as truncated words which are read out as if they were full words, such as for professor, Mgmt. for management, and Feb . for February. In such cases, the truncation is usually signalled with a full stop.
• Acronym: A series of letters that represents a longer phrase. The end result is pronounced like a word. For example, NASA is the acronym for the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration and is pronounced nah-sa .
• Initialism: Like an acronym, an initialism consists of several letters and represents a longer phrase. However, the end result cannot be pronounced as a word and instead has to be read letter by letter. FBI is the initialism for the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and each letter is pronounced individually: ef-bee-eye.

Contractions are considered informal. They are therefore best avoided in academic writing, where it’s essential to maintain a formal register.

When to use abbreviations

Only use abbreviations for phrases that you use three or more times in a paper. For terms you use less frequently, it’s easier for a reader to read the full phrase than to try to remember an abbreviation encountered only once several pages earlier.

Sometimes, you may introduce an abbreviation at the beginning of your paper, but may not use it again until much later. In that case, consider adding a List of Abbreviations to help the reader follow along.

How to introduce an abbreviation

When you first use a phrase that can be abbreviated, spell it out in full and show the abbreviation in parentheses immediately afterwards.

Organizations often use a request for proposal (RFP) to solicit work.

The study was conducted at the University of Lagos (UNILAG). Many UNILAG students were surveyed for this research.

If the long-form phrase is already in parentheses the first time it occurs, use square brackets to set the abbreviation apart.

The number of imprisoned journalists globally has risen in the past 10 years (Society of Professional Journalists [SPJ], 2015).

Remember, after you’ve introduced the abbreviation, use only the acronym throughout the rest of your paper. You don’t need to spell out the full phrase again. That’s the beauty of abbreviations!

The World Health Organization (WHO) recently conducted a joint study with the South African Medical Association (SAMA) on water hygiene in South Africa. WHO provided SAMA with a five-year grant to collect data from 25 hospitals.

How to pluralize abbreviations

To make an acronym or initialism plural, all you need to do is add a lowercase s to the end; no apostrophes necessary!

Correct:           The CEOs were profiled in Forbes magazine.

Incorrect:         The CEO’s were profiled in Forbes magazine.

Incorrect:         The CEOS were profiled in Forbes magazine.

Articles before abbreviations

When to use a or an before an abbreviation.

Use the article that matches the way the abbreviation is pronounced. If the first sound is a vowel sound, use an . If the abbreviation starts with a consonant sound, use a .

an NBC reporter

an MRI machine

a NATO representative

a MOMA exhibit

Still not sure which article to use? Deciding whether to use a or an can be tricky. In a pinch, try searching for the entire phrase online (enclosed in quotation marks) to see how other writers in your industry have approached the problem.

When to use the before an abbreviation

This rule depends on whether the abbreviation is an acronym or an initialism. Add the if the abbreviation is an initialism (not an acronym) for a phrase or name that normally includes the word the (but don’t add the letter T in the abbreviation).

Correct:           the International Criminal Court → the ICC

Correct:           the Women’s National Basketball Association → the WNBA

Incorrect:         the National Aeronautics and Space Administration → the NASA

When to avoid abbreviations

Avoid using abbreviations in the following sections of an academic paper:

Section headings

Reference section.

Your title should be accessible to all readers and easy to understand. Avoid ambiguity by spelling out phrases in full.

Correct:           The Environmental Protection Agency’s Stance on Carbon Capture

Incorrect:         The EPA’s Stance on Carbon Capture

Abstracts are short. It’s unlikely that you’ll use the same term three or more times in an abstract, so abbreviations are not necessary here. However, if you do introduce an abbreviation in the abstract, remember to do it in the body of your paper as well.

Some readers will skim your paper to identify those sections that are most useful to them. Help them navigate the contents more easily by using full phrases in the section headings instead of relying on abbreviations.

Correct:           Undergraduate Enrolment in the Society of Women Engineers in 2018

Incorrect:         Undergraduate Enrolment in the SWE in 2018

You can use abbreviations in in-text citations. In the Reference section (sometimes labelled Works Cited), however, all abbreviations should be written in full.

Correct:            American Psychological Association. (2010). Gen Y’s evolving gender roles.  Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/millennials/gender.

Incorrect:          American Psychological Association (APA). (2010). Gen Y’s evolving gender roles. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/millennials/gender.

Incorrect:          APA. (2010). Gen Y’s evolving gender roles. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/millennials/gender.

Abbreviations in other languages

Sometimes, an abbreviation or acronym might be in a foreign language. In this case, introduce both the full phrase or name of the organization in its original language and the English translation. The abbreviation should reflect the correct word order in the original language.

Italy’s Five Star Movement, known as Movimento Cinque Stelle (M5S), is a populist, anti-establishment reform party.

You can also introduce the abbreviation by putting the original name in parentheses and the abbreviation in brackets within the parentheses.

In parliamentary elections held in March 2018, the Five Star Movement (Movimento Cinque Stelle [M5S]) emerged as the largest party in Italy with 32% of the vote.

When to add a list of abbreviations

If you’ve used 10 or more abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation, consider adding a formal list of abbreviations after the table of contents. This will help your reader follow along more easily. Even if you do include a list of abbreviations, be sure to introduce each abbreviated phrase in full the first time that you use it within your text, with the corresponding abbreviation in parentheses.

A list of abbreviations should contain all the abbreviations your paper uses in alphabetical order. Abbreviations starting with a number should come before the letter ‘A’. Here’s a shortened example from a paper on medicine:

As shown in the example, abbreviations can represent not only names that would be capitalized in their full form, but also common terms that are not normally capitalized, such as blood pressure (BP). If such terms recur often in the running text, it makes sense to abbreviate them, too.

Some acronyms and initialisms are so common that they require no formal introduction; there is no need to define these in either the running text or the List of Abbreviations. Examples include USSR, AIDS, HTML, and GMT.

Frequent errors

Using abbreviations correctly in English is quite tricky, and many writers struggle with this aspect of their academic writing. Here’s a very common mistake: following an abbreviation with a word that is already in the abbreviation. For example, if you say ATM machine , the word machine is redundant because the last letter of the acronym already stands for machine .

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• Abbreviations

How to Use Abbreviations

Here are the generally accepted guidelines for using abbreviations in formal texts:

• Abbreviate a term only if doing so improves clarity and readability.
• Provide the full form of an abbreviation at first use.
• Avoid starting a sentence with an abbreviation.
• Use all capital letters for initialisms and acronyms ( USA , UK , EU , CEO , GPS ) except abbreviated Latin terms ( e.g. , i.e. , etc. , p.m. ) and scientific and technical abbreviations ( ppm , mph , ml , kg ). Capitalize contractions of titles and proper nouns ( Mr. , Dr. , Rev. , Gen. , Jan. ).
• Don’t use periods in abbreviations with two or more capital letters (except scientific abbreviations and abbreviated SI units).
• Form the plural of an abbreviation by adding s or es without an apostrophe ( DVD s , CMS es , Dr s . Who and Strange ).
• Use a or an before an abbreviation depending on how it is pronounced ( a US senator , an ATM , an MBA degree )

We discuss these and certain exceptions in detail below, with examples.

When to abbreviate a term

An abbreviation as we know is the shortened form of a term. It is usually formed using the first letters of the words of a multi-word term, but it may simply be the short form of a single word. Abbreviations can help you avoid repeating long phrases in a document, thus making it more easily scannable and readable. But abbreviate a term only if it appears multiple times in a text (at least three to five times, depending on the length of the document).

• Poor: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was set up in 1958. It is responsible for the United States’ civilian space program. Since its inception, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration has led the Apollo missions and launched the Skylab space station. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration also supports the International Space Station.
• Better: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was set up in 1958. It is responsible for the United States’ civilian space program. Since its inception, NASA has led the Apollo missions and launched the Skylab space station. NASA also supports the International Space Station.

Also use abbreviations for terms that are known better by their abbreviated rather than full forms—for example, PDF , HTML , ATM , CEO .

Don’t try to abbreviate every single term in a document. Too many abbreviations can render a text unreadable.

• Poor: NASA is the US CSP . Since its inception, it has led the AMs and launched the SSS . NASA also supports the ISS . Better: NASA is the United States’ civilian space program. It has led the Apollo missions and launched the Skylab space station. NASA also supports the International Space Station.

When to avoid abbreviations

Abbreviations can be quite useful when space is limited, but you should confine the use of nonstandard abbreviations to tables, graphs, and figures, except in scientific and technical writing.

Avoid using nonstandard abbreviations in headings; you want the reader to be able to easily skim the document or just its table of contents. Also avoid using abbreviations in captions of figures and tables, which are considered reproducible in other texts and thus standalone.

Providing the full form

In general, explain an abbreviation by providing its full form at first use in a document.

• In urban areas, a small green space ( SGS ) can become a habitat for local species of birds.
• NATO ( North Atlantic Treaty Organization ) is a military alliance of 30 countries.
• The GDPR ( General Data Protection Regulation ) is one of the toughest privacy laws in the world.
• The National Aeronautics and Space Administration , better known as NASA , has released its latest climate assessment.
• Nongovernmental organizations , or NGOs , fill this gap.

In academic papers and business reports, provide a glossary or list of abbreviations after the table of contents to help the general reader.

Don’t capitalize the words in the full form of an abbreviation unless it is a proper noun.

• CPR: c ardio p ulmonary r esuscitation
• TIN: t ax i dentification n umber
• FBI: F ederal B ureau of I nvestigation
• UK: U nited K ingdom

If a term usually appears in its abbreviated rather than complete form, the abbreviation need not be explained: for example, USA , MBA , PhD , PDF , BC / AD , BCE / CE , FAQ , URL , Mr. , Dr. , rpm , i.e.

You also don’t need to provide the full form of an abbreviation listed as a noun rather than an abbreviation in standard dictionaries like Merriam-Webster . Such terms that are now known better by their abbreviated forms include DNA , IQ , URL , HTML , PDF , hi-fi , TV , and (unfortunately) COVID .

Avoid redundancies like “SSN number.” Since SSN stands for “social security number ,” the word number after the abbreviation is redundant.

Use of capital letters

Abbreviations that are formed using the initial letters of the words of a term (initialisms or acronyms) generally comprise all capital letters.

• FAQ ( f requently a sked q uestion)
• PC ( p ersonal c omputer)
• NAFTA ( N orth A merican F ree T rade A greement)
• BA ( B achelor of A rts)
• BC ( b efore C hrist)

Contractions usually appear in lowercase letters, but those that appear before a name as titles or are part of a proper noun are capitalized (the first letter of the contraction is then a capital letter).

• abbr. (abbreviation)
• vol. (volume)
• ed. (editor/edited)
• Dr. (Doctor)
• Gen. (General)
• Prof. (Professor)
• estd. (established)
• Inc. (Incorporated)

Technical and scientific abbreviations comprising the initial letters of a term may contain lowercase letters. Abbreviated units of measurement are also not capitalized.

• rpm (revolutions per minute)
• bhp (brake horsepower)
• mph (miles per hour)
• km (kilometer)
• GlcNAc (N-acetylglucosamine)

Latin abbreviations are also generally lowercased.

• e.g. ( exempli gratia or “for the sake of example”)
• i.e. ( id est or “that is”)
• ibid. ( ibidem or “in the same place”)
• etc. ( et cetera or “and the rest”)
• et al. ( et alii or “and others”)

In academic and other formal writing, avoid using abbreviations such as e.g. and i.e. in running text. Confine their use to parentheses, figures, tables, and citations.

Use of periods

In general, abbreviations with at least two capital letters contain no period.

Abbreviations that end in lowercase letters often contain periods.

If an abbreviation ending in a period appears at the end of a sentence, don’t add another period after it.

• Incorrect: Our flight is at 3 a.m.. Correct: Our flight is at 3 a.m.

However, periods are omitted in scientific and technical abbreviations, abbreviated SI units, and abbreviations containing the preposition per .

Contractions and other shortened forms that end in a lowercase letter usually take a period.

In British usage, a period (or full stop) is used only if the shortened form comprises the first few letters or the first syllable of the word, but not otherwise. Thus, the contraction Dr (for D octo r ) does not take a period, but one does appear after Jan. (for Jan uary ).

Use of a / an and the

Use a or an before an abbreviation depending upon how it is pronounced. If it starts with a consonant sound, use a ; otherwise, use an .

• a D VD player
• an I Q test
• a U N resolution pronounced “a y oo-en resolution”
• an N BA game pronounced “an e n-bee-ay” game
• an H R professional

With acronyms (abbreviations pronounced as words), the article the is omitted, even when it would be used with the full form.

• The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is a cartel of 13 countries. but The OPEC is a cartel of 13 countries.

But with initialisms (in which the individual letters are pronounced), use the with the abbreviation if it is used with the full form.

• The United Kingdom is an island nation that is part of Europe. or The UK is an island nation that is part of Europe.

At the start of a sentence

In formal writing, avoid starting a sentence with an abbreviation. Use the full form instead, or rephrase.

• Poor: UN representatives met in Brussels today. Better: United Nations representatives met in Brussels today.
• Poor: UFDs save lives. Better: Unidentified floating devices save lives.
• Poor: UK health officials are now recommending a booster dose. Better: Health officials in the UK are now recommending a booster dose.

Because acronyms and contractions are read aloud as words, they are acceptable at the beginning of a sentence.

• Correct: NATO officials met with Kuwaiti diplomats in Brussels today.
• Correct: Dr. Green has ordered additional tests.
• Correct: Mr. Mittens is a most respectable cat.

Acronyms are abbreviations pronounced as words. Thus, NATO and NASA are acronyms, while USA and UK are merely initialisms.

If using the full form makes the sentence awkward, use the abbreviated form—for example, to refer to company names.

• Correct: UBS / The Union Bank of Switzerland opened a new office today in London.
• Correct: HSBC / The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation operates in many countries in Asia.

Plural forms

To form the plural of an abbreviation, simply add s (an apostrophe is unnecessary).

Abbreviations that already end in S can be pluralized either by adding another s or by adding es .

• SMS s or SMS es
• CMS s or CMS es

To form the plural of a contraction, add s and place a period after.

• Vols. 1–5
• Remiramen Femy and Minerva Dash, eds.
• Drs. Femy and Dash

The plurals of Mr. and Ms. are Messrs. and Mss. (or Mses. ), seen only in formal usage. For more examples, see this article on how to form plurals of acronyms and other abbreviations .

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If an abbreviation (like HTML and DNA ) is listed as a noun in the dictionary, it need not be explained. Contractions like Dr. are generally used as such. But an abbreviation that isn’t well known (like MTN ) needs to be explained to the reader.

Abbreviations that start with a consonant sound when read aloud ( a y oo-kay passport ) take the article a instead of an .

Although abbreviations are not generally used to start a sentence in formal writing, contractions (like Dr. ) and acronyms (abbreviations pronounced as a word, like NATO ) are acceptable in this position.

To form the plural of an abbreviation, add an s without an apostrophe.

Use standard abbreviations that are easily recognizable in your field, but avoid abbreviating a large number of terms as this can make text confusing for readers. In nontechnical writing, restrict the use of abbreviations to tables and figures.

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Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

In APA, abbreviations should be limited to instances when a) the abbreviation is standard and will not interfere with the reader’s understanding and b) if space and repetition can be greatly avoided through abbreviation. You should not overuse abbreviations (writing is easier to understand when words are written out); you should also not underuse abbreviations (in general, if you use an abbreviation, it should appear at least three times in your paper, because fewer uses mean it is more likely your reader will forget what the abbreviation refers to).

There are a few common trends in abbreviating that you should follow when using APA, though there are always exceptions to these rules. When abbreviating a term, use the full term the first time you use it, followed immediately by the abbreviation in parentheses.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), abbreviations are best used only when they allow for clear communication with the audience.

Exceptions: Standard abbreviations like units of measurement and states do not need to be written out. APA also allows abbreviations that appear as words in  Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary  to be used without explanation (IQ, HIV, RNA, CIA, UNESCO).

Do not use periods or spaces in abbreviations of all capital letters, unless it is a proper name  or  refers to participants using identity-concealing labels: 

Exceptions: Use a period when abbreviating the United States as an adjective (U.S. Air Force or U.S. President)

Use a period if the abbreviation is a Latin abbreviation or a reference abbreviation:

Do not use periods when abbreviating measurements:

Exception: Use a period when abbreviating inch (in.) to avoid confusion.

Units of measurement and statistical abbreviations should only be abbreviated when accompanied by numerical values:

Only certain units of time should be abbreviated.

Do not abbreviate:

Do abbreviate:

To form the plural of abbreviations, add s alone without apostrophe or italicization.

Exception:  To avoid confusion, do not add s to pluralize units of measurement (i.e., use "12 m" to signify "twelve meters," not "12 ms").

Abbreviations in Citations

Citations should be as condensed as possible, so you should know the basic rules of abbreviation endorsed by the APA to provide your readers with reference information.

Always abbreviate the first and middle names of authors, editors, etc.

Use the following abbreviations within citations (take note of capitalization):

Writing academically: Abbreviations

• Academic style
• Personal pronouns
• Contractions

Abbreviations

• Signposting
• Paragraph structure
• Using sources in your writing

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Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or phrases. Generally, abbreviations are not acceptable in academic writing (with some exceptions, see below) and acronyms are (providing they are used as shown below).

As academic writing is formal in style, most abbreviations should be avoided. Even the common ones shown below:

Some common ones to avoid

Avoid e.g. and i.e. , instead use for example and for instance .

Avoid etc . There isn't really an alternative, so rewrite the sentence.

Avoid dept , govt . Use  department , government .

Avoid NB , instead use note that .

Avoid vs  or v , instead use versus or against (except in Law reports or cases)

Some acceptable abbreviations

Titles such as Mr. Dr. Prof. are acceptable when using them in conjunction with the individual's name i.e. Dr. Smith.

Some Latin phrases

et al. (short form of et alia - and others is acceptable when giving in text citations with multiple authors. The full stop should always be included afterwards to acknowledge the abbreviation. It does not need to be italicised as it is in common usage.

ibid. (short form of ibidim - in the same place) is acceptable if using footnote references to indicate that a reference is the same as the previous one. Again, always include the full stop to acknowledge the abbreviation. It is the convention to italicise this as it is less commonly used.

sic (short form of sic erat scriptum - thus it was written). This is used to indicate there was an error in something you are quoting (either an interviewee or an author) and it is not a misquote. It is added in square brackets but is neither italicised nor followed by a full stop i.e.

"it'd be great if unis [sic] could develop a person's self-knowledge"

Acronyms are acceptable, but use the name in full on its first use in a particular document (e.g. an assignment), no matter how well known the acronym is. For example, on its first use in an essay you might refer to "the World Health Organisation (WHO)" - it would be fine to simply refer to "the WHO" for the remainder of the essay.

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5 Quick Tips for Using Abbreviations and Acronyms in Academic Writing

Whether you’re working on a thesis or a research paper, abbreviations and acronyms are difficult to avoid in academic writing, which is why it’s important that you know how to use them properly. Here’s a quick primer.

1. Spell the word or phrase in full at first mention

When you first use the term that you will be abbreviating, you should usually spell out the actual word or phrase in full and follow that with the abbreviation/acronym in brackets.

For example: “We then conducted an analysis of variance (ANOVA).”

This ensures that your reader understands what your abbreviation means. While some abbreviations may seem common or obvious, different disciplines may use the same shorthand for different phrases. For example, “CAD” could refer to computer-aided design, coronary artery disease, Canadian dollar, current account deficit… You get the point! Abbreviations or acronyms that are extremely common for your audience may not need to be defined, but it’s best to check your style guidelines on this—and if you’re unsure, err on the side of caution and provide the full version at first mention.

2. Make sure abbreviations appear more than once

If you find that you have only used a specific abbreviation once in the entire paper, you should use the full version of the word or phrase instead and delete the abbreviation. This is because the purpose of abbreviations and acronyms is to make the writing more concise and aid comprehension, so—bearing in mind that it’s good practice to spell the abbreviated word or phrase in full at first mention—if it is only used once the abbreviation is redundant.

3. Use abbreviations consistently

Once you have introduced an abbreviation, it should be used consistently throughout the rest of the piece—that is, every time the word or phrase appears following its introduction. This means that once you have defined the abbreviation, you should stick to the same format and not switch back to the full word or a different abbreviation elsewhere in the paper. There are some exceptions to this rule; for example, the original text should be retained in direct quotations and references, and you may wish to use the full version in tables, figures, and section headings, depending on whether your style guide permits or even prescribes this.

4. Don’t go overboard

Abbreviations are a great way to keep writing concise. They can help you meet a tight word count, and enable the reader to focus on important information without getting bogged down by cumbersome phrases (for example, it’s much easier to process “RMSEA” than “root mean square error of approximation”!). However, a good writer will be prudent in their use of abbreviations; if a paper contains too many, that can be distracting and confusing in itself. Bear in mind also that similar constructions should be avoided. For example, if both “CAD” and “CDA” appear in your paper, it may be better to modify one of the abbreviations, or use the full version for one of the terms and do away with that abbreviation altogether.

5. Let us help!

Practice common sense, stick to the rules above, and, as always, feel free to have us check your work prior to submission to make sure your abbreviations are working with your paper rather than against it. Among our usual checks, we’ll ensure abbreviations are appropriate and consistent, and in line with your style guidelines.

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• Writing Tips

Abbreviations in Academic Writing (6 Top Tips)

• 3-minute read
• 1st May 2017

Abbreviations are shortened words or phrases. These come in many forms, most with important roles in academic writing (not least ensuring brevity).

In this post, we take a look at some common types of abbreviation and how to use them.

1. Acronyms and Initialisms

Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations made from the first letter of each word in a phrase:

BBC = B ritish B roadcasting C orporation

UNICEF = U nited N ations I nternational C hildren’s E mergency F und

You can use these to prevent repetition of longer terms.

Generally, you should define acronyms and initialisms on their first use by giving the abbreviation in parentheses after the full terminology:

The study was criticised for focusing on W estern, e ducated, i ndustrialised, r ich and d emocratic ( WEIRD ) societies. But people from WEIRD societies only represent 12 percent of the global population.

And yes, WEIRD is genuinely an acronym used in the social sciences.

2. Latin Abbreviations

Many Latin abbreviations are part of everyday English, such as ‘e.g.’ and ‘i.e.’. Other examples include ‘etc.’ (short for et cetera ) and ‘N.B.’ (short for nota bene ).

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But academic writing uses other Latin abbreviations too. You might have seen ‘et al.’ (‘and others’), ‘ibid.’ (‘in the same place’) and ‘op cit.’ (‘in the work cited’) used for referencing sources.

The key is knowing which abbreviations are used in your subject area, especially in disciplines like law where Latin terms are very common .

3. Titles, Measurements and Dates

Other common abbreviations include titles, measurements and dates:

• Titles (e.g. Doctor) are normally abbreviated when used before a name (e.g. Dr Forde).
• Units of measurement are typically written out in full when used in formal writing, but shortened in technical or scientific work (e.g. ‘three metres’ becomes ‘3m’).
• Days and months are usually written in full in formal writing, but abbreviated otherwise (e.g. you could shorten ‘Friday, February 5th’ to ‘Fri., Feb. 5’).

4. Punctuating Abbreviations

Whether to put a full stop after an abbreviation can be confusing, as rules vary .

In the UK, we use a full stop when an abbreviation only includes the first part of a word (e.g. ‘Dec.’ as short for ‘December’). If an abbreviation uses the first and last letter of the word, no full stop is needed (e.g. ‘Mr’ as short for ‘Mister’).

In the US, full stops are added after all abbreviations except metric units of measurement.

5. Contractions

A contraction omits letters to combine two words (e.g. ‘do not’ = ‘don’t’). These are common in everyday speech, but they are typically considered too informal for academic writing.

6. Listing Abbreviations

Most dissertations include a list of abbreviations. This is where you can set out frequently used abbreviations, acronyms or initialisms in your work, giving your reader a handy guide whenever an unfamiliar term is used.

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Other APA Guidelines: Abbreviations

Basics of abbreviations.

Using abbreviations can be an effective way to avoid repeating lengthy, technical terms throughout a piece of writing, but they should be used sparingly to prevent your text from becoming difficult to read.

Many abbreviations take the form of acronyms or initialisms, which are abbreviations consisting of the first letter of each word in a phrase. Examples are National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and Better Business Bureau (BBB). Note that the abbreviation uses all capital letters, and there are no periods between the letters.

To use an abbreviation, write out the term or phrase on first use, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. See these examples:

The patient had been diagnosed with traumatic brain injury (TBI) in March of the previous year. Walden students need to know how to cite information using the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.

Using an Abbreviation in a Draft

After introducing the abbreviation, use the abbreviation by itself, without parentheses, throughout the rest of the document.

The patient had been diagnosed with traumatic brain injury (TBI) in March of 2014. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2015), people with TBI often have difficulty with memory and concentration, physical symptoms such as headaches, emotional symptoms such as sadness and irritability, and difficulty falling asleep. Although the patient explained that she experienced frequent headaches and difficulty concentrating, she had not been regularly taking any medication for her TBI symptoms when she visited the clinic 6 months after her diagnosis.

Note: When introducing an abbreviation within a narrative citation, use a comma between the abbreviation and the year.

Making an Abbreviation Plural

Simply add an “s” to an abbreviation to make it plural. (Do not add an apostrophe.)

I work with five other RNs during a typical shift.

Note: RN is a commonly used acronym found in Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary , so it does not need to be introduced. See the “Exceptions to the Rules” section below for more information about commonly used abbreviations.

Exceptions to the Rules

There are a few exceptions to the basic rules:

• If you use the phrase three times or fewer, it should be written out every time. However, a standard abbreviation for a term familiar in its abbreviated form is clearer and more concise, even if it is used fewer than three times.
• Commonly used acronyms and abbreviations may not need to be written out. If an abbreviation appears as a word in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary , then it does not need to be written it out on first use. Examples include words such as IQ, REM, and HIV.
• Other than abbreviations prescribed by APA in reference list elements (e.g., “ed.” for “edition,” “n.d.” for “no date,” etc.), do not use abbreviations in the references list. For example, a source authored by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention would not be abbreviated as CDC in the references list.
• If using an abbreviation for a unit of measure with a numerical value, you do not need to write the term out on first use. For example, instead of writing “12 grams;” you can simply use “12 g.” If, however, you use a unit of measure without a numerical value, write the term out (e.g., “several grams”).
• Abbreviations for time, common Latin terms, and statistical abbreviations also follow specific rules. See APA 7, Sections 6.28, 6.29, and 6.44 for more information.

United States and U.S.

In APA style, "United States" should always be spelled out when it is used as a noun or location.

Example: In the United States, 67% reported this experience.

United States can be abbreviated as "U.S." when it is used as an adjective.

Examples: U.S. population and U.S. Census Bureau.

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Acronyms and Abbreviations in Academic Writing: A Quick Guide

Abbreviations, acronyms, and Latin expressions can all be found in academic and scientific articles. But as a writer, it can be puzzling to know exactly when and how to use abbreviations and acronyms in formal academic publications. Let’s learn what types of abbreviations there are, what the different style manuals have to say about them, and when you should and shouldn’t include them in your scientific paper.

Table of Content:

What is an abbreviation, using abbreviations properly, how can i use abbreviations in academic writing, how can i avoid making abbreviation mistakes.

An abbreviation is a word that has been shortened from its original longer form. There are several different types of abbreviations.

Acronyms.   An acronym is an abbreviation made from the first letter of each word in a name or phrase. Acronyms are pronounced like a word. NASA, which is short for N ational A eronautics and S pace A dministration and pronounced “Nah-suh,” is one well-known acronym. UNICEF, which stands for U nited N ations I nternational C hildren’s E mergency F und and is pronounced “you-nuh-seff,” is another example.

Initialisms. An initialism is similar to an acronym because it is an abbreviation that uses the first letter of each word in a name or phrase. Unlike acronyms, however, the letters of an initialism are pronounced individually. FBI, which is short for F ederal B ureau of I nvestigations, is an initialism. UK (United Kingdom) and USA (United States of America) are also initialisms.

Contractions. A contraction is when two words are combined for ease with an apostrophe. Common examples of contractions include don’t (do not), aren’t (are not), and let’s (let us).

Latin abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are commonly used in academia and law. Common latin abbreviations used in English writing are etc . (et cetera, “and so on”), e.g . (exempli gratia, “for example”), i.e . (id est, “in other words”), and et al . (et alii, “and others”).

Titles, measurements, and dates. Titles ( Dr . for Doctor, Rev . for Reverend), measurement units ( cm for centimeter, kg for kilogram), and days ( Feb . for February, Fri . for Friday) can all be abbreviated.

Before you begin using abbreviations in academic writing, there are a few rules you need to know. There are three main things to keep in mind when using abbreviations in an academic or scientific paper. These are spacing, capitalization, and punctuation . It is important to note that, like many other aspects of writing, the rules are sometimes different in the US and UK variations of English.

• Spacing . For measurement units, there should be a space between the number and the unit. The unit is written after the number.

Correct : Mumbai had received 11 mm of rain by 6 pm . Incorrect : Mumbai had received 11mm of rain by 6pm .

• Capitalization . Initialisms and acronyms should be written in all capital letters.

Correct : The National Health Insurance Service (NHIS) seized Jimin’s $4.7 million dollar apartment for failure to pay premiums. Incorrect : The NHIS (National Health Insurance Service) seized Jimin’s $4.7 million dollar apartment for failure to pay premiums.

Note that if you are abbreviating a phrase that is not a proper noun (name of an institution, organization, etc.), then that phrase should not be capitalized when it is written prior to the abbreviation. For example, if you were introducing BP as an abbreviation for blood pressure, you would write “blood pressure (BP),” not “Blood Pressure (BP).”

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• Punctuation . Generally, periods are used with latin abbreviations as well as dates . In US English, titles are followed by a period (Dr.), while in UK English, the period is omitted (Dr). Initialisms and acronyms generally don’t use periods (we write USSR rather than U.S.S.R.). Contractions use an apostrophe.

Now that you know how to use abbreviations, you may be wondering if and when you can use abbreviations in academic writing. You definitely can use abbreviations in academic writing if you keep the following rules in mind!

• Spell out the full phrase or term the first time you use it in your paper and include the abbreviation in parentheses. You can use the abbreviation each time after that.
• Don’t abbreviate everything . It is fine to abbreviate technical terms or phrases used repeatedly throughout your writing, but only if you use them more than a few times ! The Chicago Manual of Style advises abbreviating a term when it is used five or more times , while the APA only asks that you use an abbreviation if the term is used three or more times. The AMA guidelines suggest that words that are short and easy to write should not be abbreviated at all.
• Provide a list of abbreviations for your reader. Especially if you are writing a thesis, an academic article or a monograph, including a list of abbreviations used at the beginning will give your reader an easy reference.
• Avoid abbreviations in your paper abstract. While abbreviations are perfectly acceptable in the text of your paper, they should be avoided in your abstract as much as possible.
• Avoid contractions. Contractions in English are considered informal, and should therefore generally be avoided in academic writing.
• Minimize the use of latin abbreviations . It is fine to include parenthetical i.e . and e.g. here and there, but in general, it is preferred to simply write out “for example” or “in other words.” Researchers should specifically note that ending sentences with etc. in academic writing is frowned upon, and frequent use of this term is perceived as lazy writing.
• Know how to make initialisms and acronyms plural . You can pluralize abbreviations by adding a lowercase “s” at the end . CEOs, RNs, and NEATs are all examples of correct plural abbreviations.
• Be consistent! Inconsistent abbreviations can confuse the reader and make your paper appear poorly written.  If you abbreviate a word, make sure you use the same abbreviation throughout the text.

In addition to following the tips and tricks above, you should always consult the relevant style manual when you are writing your academic or scientific paper to minimize any abbreviation errors. Another option is to use an AI grammar checker like Trinka. Trinka not only checks for grammar and spelling errors , it can also highlight inconsistent abbreviation use and makes sure that your paper adheres to a specific citation style. Abbreviations are a great way to make your paper more readable or adhere to a limited word count, so don’t be afraid to incorporate them into your academic writing today.

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Common Latin abbreviations

Several Latin-derived abbreviations are commonly used in both everyday and academic English (like e.g. , i.e. , et al. , etc. ). These abbreviations do not need to be explained.

Usually, these abbreviations take a full stop, “ . “, after the last letter in each abbreviated word, although some publications dispense with the periods (like eg, ie, et al, etc). Some journals put all Latin abbreviations in italics, either with or without the periods ( et al. , e.g., i.e., etc. ) . Whichever style is used, it is important that the style be used consistently throughout the text.

• Anonymous Artefacts and Revealing Runes, ch. 1
• Predicting Aviation Hazards During Convective Events, ch. 3
• Predicting Aviation Hazards During Convective Events, ch. 4

The word and/or can be used to simplify writing. For example,

There are many ways to detect convective events if they produce heavy rainfall and/or lightning.

means that the events can be detected if they produce either heavy rainfall or lightning, or both heavy rainfall and lightning. Note that no blank space occurs between the words and the slash.

The abbreviation anon. stands for “anonymous.” This abbreviation is typically used in a list of references to refer to a work by an anonymous author.

• Identifying the Effects of Low Emission Zones, ch. 7
• Predicting Aviation Hazards During Convective Events, ch. 2

The abbreviation c. or ca. stands for the Latin word “ circa ,” which means approximately. With a numeral, the symbol ~ may be used.

The abbreviation cf. stands for the word “confer” and means “compare to.” It is sometimes italicized: cf.

The abbreviation def. means “definition.”

• Laundry Machine Booking System, ch. 1
• The Distribution of Human Capital in Sweden, ch. 2

Using e.g. and i.e.

The two abbreviations e.g. and i.e. are easily confused with each other. The abbreviation e.g. stands for the Latin exempli gratia , which means “for example”. Use e.g. when giving a non-comprehensive list or example.

Many colors can be created by combining primary colors ( e.g. , orange is a combination of red and yellow).

The abbreviation i.e. stands for the Latin id est , which means “that is” or “in other words”. Use i.e. when rephrasing or giving clarifying information.

It is generally supposed that there is no overlap between P and NP-Complete problems ( i.e. , that NP-Complete problems cannot be solved in polynomial time).

The abbreviation ed. can either mean “editor” or “edition.” The plural forms of the word, “editors” and “editions” are abbreviated eds.

• EROD activity and mRNA expression of CYP1A and vitellogenin in rainbow trout
• Parallel implementations of SAMR
• The Distribution of Human Capital in Sweden, ch. 4
• The Distribution of Human Capital in Sweden, ch. 5
• The Distribution of Human Capital in Sweden, ch. 6

Using et al.

When citing a reference with more than two (or three) authors, it is common to give only the last name of the first author followed by et al. , which is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase et alii , meaning “and others”. Note that a period comes after the letters “al”, because this word is an abbreviated form, but not after “et”, because this word is not an abbreviation.

Efforts towards a sustainable strategy have been initiated by the Swedish government (Gerhardt et al. , 2013).

The abbreviation etc. stands for the Latin et cetera , which means “and other things”. The abbreviation is used to indicate that a given list is not comprehensive. The word is usually followed by a full stop, but note that if etc. ends a sentence, only one full stop is used.

We included several characteristics about the measuring sites (whether they were urban, rural, etc. ) in our data.

Monitored pollution types included particulate matter, gases, etc. We also collected information from the factories themselves.

The abbreviation ibid is an abbreviation for the Latin word ibidem , which means “in the same place”. Ibid. is used in a reference list when several works by the same author are listed consecutively.

The abbreviation illus.  means either “illustration” or “illustrated by.”

Ms . is an abbreviation for manuscript. Mss. means manuscripts.

The abbreviation n/a means “not applicable.” It is used to indicate when there is no relevant information available.

The abbreviation NB stands for the Latin word “nota bene,” which means “take note” or “notice.” It is used to indicate that readers should take special notice of something.

The abbreviation nd may appear as n.d., ND, or N.D. In a table reporting results, nd usually stands for “not determined”. When used in a citation, nd usually means “no date”, for example with an internet source. (The full reference should report the date that the information was accessed.)

Convective initiation is the first stage in any kind of convective event (Groenemeijer et al., n.d. ).

• Anonymous Artefacts and Revealing Runes, ch. 3

The abbreviations no. (sometimes seen as N° ) means “number” (from Latin numero ). This abbreviation can only be used in front of a numeral; it cannot stand on its own as a noun within a text.

p./pg. / pp./pgs.

The abbreviations p. and pg. mean “page.”; pp. and pgs. mean “pages.”

The abbreviation pseud . stands for “pseudonym.” A pseudonym is a fictitious name assumed to hide one’s true identity.

The abbreviation pub . can either mean “published by” or “publisher.”

The abbreviation qtd. in , when used in a citation, stands for “quoted in”, and is used when quoting from a secondary source. As with many abbreviations, the full stop at the end of qtd is optional.

Simone de Beauvoir’s famous words “one is not born a woman; one becomes one” ( qtd in Moi, Sexual/Texual … 92) formed the starting point for second-wave feminism.

The abbreviation trans . stands for “translation.”

The abbreviation UP stands for “university press.” A university press is a publishing house tied to a university.

Viz. is an abbreviation of the Latin word videlicet , which means “namely.”

The abbreviation vol. means “volume” and commonly refers to one book in a series of related books. The plural form of the word, “volumes,” is abbreviated vols.

• Laundry Machine Booking System, ch. 2

The abbreviation vs. comes from the Latin word versus , which means “against.”

10 Tips for Using Abbreviations Correctly

How and When to Use Abbreviations in Formal Writing

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"Provided they are not obscure to the reader, abbreviations communicate more with fewer letters. Writers have only to ensure that the abbreviations they use are too well known to need any introduction, or that they are introduced and explained on their first appearance."

—From "The Cambridge Guide to English Usage" by Pam Peters

Despite what you may have heard in school, abbreviations , acronyms, and initialisms are commonly used in formal writing (though you'll find them more frequently in business and the sciences than in the humanities). Exactly how they should be used depends on your audience, the country you're living in (British and American conventions differ), and the particular style guide you're following.

• Using Indefinite Articles Before Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initialisms: The choice between "a" and "an" is determined by the sound of the first letter in the abbreviation. Use "a" before a consonant sound (for example, "a CBC documentary" or "a U.S. official"). Use "an" before a vowel sound ("an ABC documentary" or "an MRI").
• Placing a Period at the End of an Abbreviation: In American usage, an abbreviation that includes the first and last letters of a single word (Doctor, for example) is usually followed by a period (Dr.), while In British usage, the period (or full stop) is usually omitted (Dr).
• Abbreviating the Titles of Doctors: For medical doctors, write either Dr. Jan Jones or Jan Jones, M.D. (Don't write Dr. Jan Jones, M.D.) For nonmedical doctors, write Dr. Sam Smith or Sam Smith, Ph.D. (Don't write Dr. Sam Smith, Ph.D.)
• Using Common Abbreviations: Certain abbreviations are never spelled out: a.m., p.m., B.C. (or B.C.E.), A.D. (or C.E.). Unless your style guide says otherwise, use lower case or small capitals for a.m. and p.m. Use capital letters or small caps for B.C. and A.D. (the periods are optional). Traditionally, B.C. comes after the year and A.D. comes before it, but nowadays the abbreviation commonly follows the year in both instances.
• Abbreviating Months and Days: If the month is preceded or followed by a numeral (14 Aug. or Aug. 14), abbreviate months as follows: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sep. (or Sept.), Oct., Nov., Dec. Don't abbreviate May, June, or July. As a general rule, don't abbreviate the month if it appears alone or with just the year—and don't abbreviate the days of the week unless they appear in charts, tables, or slides.
• Using the Abbreviation Etc.: The Latin abbreviation etc. (short for et cetera) means "and others." Never write "and etc." Do not use etc. at the end of a list introduced by "such as" or "including."
• Placing a Period After Each Letter in an Acronym or an Initialism: Though there are exceptions, as a general rule omit the periods: NATO, DVD, IBM.
• Punctuating an Abbreviation at the End of a Sentence: Use a single period when an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence. The single period does double duty—marking the abbreviation and closing the sentence.
• Avoid RAS Syndrome: RAS syndrome is a humorous initialism for "Redundant Acronym (or Abbreviation) Syndrome syndrome." Avoid redundant expressions such as ATM machine and BBC corporation.
• Avoid Alphabet Soup: Alphabet soup (a.k.a. initialese) is a metaphor for using an overabundance of abbreviations and acronyms. If you're unsure whether the meaning of an abbreviation is familiar to your readers, write out the entire word.
• State Abbreviations
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How to Use Abbreviations (6 Top Tips)

• 3-minute read
• 1st March 2018

Abbreviations can be tricky, so it’s important to use them correctly. That’s why we’ve created this list of top tips about using abbreviations in your written work !

1. When to Abbreviate

You don’t need to abbreviate every long word. It’s best to save abbreviations for terms you use repeatedly, especially long words or complicated phrases. Keep in mind that using too many abbreviations can make a document hard to read. This is known as ‘alphabet soup’ .

2. Acronyms and Initialisms

We’ve discussed acronyms and initialisms previously elsewhere , but here’s a quick reminder:

• Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations made up of the first letters in a phrase (e.g., CIA = Central Intelligence Agency; NBC = National Broadcasting Company)
• All acronyms and initialisms should be defined on their first use by giving the full terminology followed by the abbreviated version in brackets
• Once defined, the shortened version should be used in place of the full term

Stick to these basic rules and you should be fine!

3. Contractions

Contractions are created by combining two words. This usually involves omitting some letters, as indicated by an apostrophe:

Who will → Who’ll

Cannot → Can’t

These words are common in many types of writing, but you shouldn’t use them in formal documents.

4. Latin Abbreviations

Quite a few common abbreviations are based on Latin terms. The most famous are:

E.g. (exempli gratia) = Used when giving an example

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I.e. (id est) = Used when explaining something

Etc. (et cetera) = Used to show that a list is incomplete

You’ll find even more Latin abbreviations in academic writing, especially when referencing sources.

5. Punctuation

When shortening a word, we usually add a period afterwards:

Mister → Mr.

Doctor → Dr.

September → Sept.

The main exceptions here are measurements, which are written without extra punctuation (e.g., “cm” for centimeter). The exception to this exception, however, is “in.,” which is short for “inches.” We add the extra period in this case so that the abbreviation isn’t confused for the word “in” .

With acronyms and initialisms, meanwhile, there’s usually no need to add periods between each letter. However, some people prefer to include periods, especially with “U.S.” and “U.S.A.”

6. Create a List of Abbreviations

Finally, you may want to create a list of abbreviations at the start of your document. You can use this to define any abbreviations you use, giving the reader an easy point of reference. A good tip is to make a list as you go, as then you don’t miss anything.

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• Special Publication:  Writing Guide for Public Documents
• January 2012

Good Grammar Makes for Good Writing: Remembering the Basics

Abbreviations/acronyms.

Ghana’s Millennium Development Authority (MiDA) is responsible for implementing the MCC compact. According to a MiDA spokesperson, the roads project in Ghana was completed on time and on budget. MiDA is updating beneficiaries of the outcomes.

• She has worked at UNESCO, WWF, the World Bank, OPEC, AfDB, and the IMF. She also spent three years at the City Agricultural Monitoring Project (CAMP).
• He met with representatives from the World Bank and the IMF at the United Nations, where they discussed IMF- and U.N.-led initiatives and MCC-funded projects.

Bibliography/Endnotes

MCC occasionally promotes academic or white papers on development topics. These papers cite facts, figures and important statements. To properly cite material or data used from other sources, writers can consult the many available style guides, including the Associated Press Stylebook and the Chicago Manual of Style.

Capitalization

She worked in the Northern Zone of El Salvador, but enjoyed traveling south to the urban areas.

courtesy titles

Do not use.

Paul Applegarth was MCC's first CEO. Applegarth served in the position from 2003 to 2005.

Foreign Words

Stoves emit a toxic brew of pollution in traditional ger homes, circular felt dwellings popular in Mongolia’s capital.

Ulaanbaatar is the capital of Mongolia.

• Moummer al-Kadhafi,
• Muammer Qadhafi,
• Moammer Gadhafi

World Food Programme, not World Food Program

Joe Smith benefits from MCC's agriculture program in Moldova. Because of new irrigation, Smith can grow an additional 10 hectares of wheat.

Abdulhaq has worked as a translator with the U.S. military in Afghanistan for three years. Abdulhaq, who has only one name like many Afghans, has worked with Army and Marine units.

In 2013, Park Geun-hye was elected president of South Korea. Park is the first woman to hold the office.

• More than 20 percent of the farmers increased their incomes.
• More than 9 percent of farmers raised higher-value crops.
• two-thirds, four-fifths, one-half
• Over two-thirds of the compact investment is obligated.

Burkina Faso signed its compact in July 2008.

Possessives

women’s rights

• girls’ schools
• beneficiaries’ stories
• measles’effects
• United States’ generosity

compact’s goals

• eyewitness’s account
• eyewitness’ story

publication and policy titles

Italicize and capitalize the name of the publication or policy only if it is the official title.

Punctuation

Brackets, [ ].

Avoid brackets. Use parentheses instead or recast the sentence.

This is true: No amount of development assistance will end global poverty unless the engine of private sector, market-led growth is ignited as well.

MCC has one mission: global poverty reduction through growth.

• Colons go outside quotation marks unless they are part of the quotation itself.

She said, “The compensation package helped me start a new business,” and her son nodded.

The flag is red, white and blue.

MCC partner countries are strengthening policy performance, investing in their own development solutions, deepening capacity and transparency, and delivering the results their citizens demand.

MCC’s CEO said, “We are pursuing greater private sector engagement.”

• Be consistent in the use of hyphens, but do not overuse them
• Hyphens are joiners.
• Use a hyphen to link words, compound adjectives or to mark the division of single words at the end of a line. Follow a hyphen with a space only in constructions such as pre- and post-manufacturing waste.
• well-known NGO
• that NGO is well known
• full-time commitment
• first-quarter disbursements
• private sector growth
• easily remembered objectives
• highly sophisticated irrigation equipment

The impact evaluation estimates 10- to 20-year benefits.

• pages 46–52
• Civil War–era
• male–female
• This difficult component of the compact—an unprecedented undertaking—requires the majority of staff time and resources.
• MCC’s core principles—policy performance, country ownership, results, transparency—set a new standard in aid effectiveness.

Question Marks, ?

• Who wrote “Gone With the Wind”?
• The staffer asked, “Who handles private sector engagement?”

Semicolons, ;

Congressional Democrats labeled the Republican proposal with names like Ducking, Dodging and Destroying; the Slash, Burn and Pander Act; and The Bill Which Tap Dances Around the Question of Revenue and Lifting the Debt Ceiling. 

She said, “The compensation package helped me start a new business”; many of her neighbors started businesses as well.

As per GPO, AP and Chicago style manuals, always use a single space after a period, exclamation mark and question mark at the end of a sentence in public documents.

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• The prime minister toured MCC projects in her country.
• John Doe, the current president, plans to run again.
• She met with President-elect Obama.
• She met with former President George W. Bush.

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• For Example Abbreviation (e.g.) | Usage & Examples

For Example Abbreviation (e.g.) | Usage & Examples

Published on February 2, 2023 by Julia Merkus . Revised on August 23, 2023.

For example is a common phrase used to indicate an example or illustration to support a statement. In writing, it is often abbreviated as e.g. and used to introduce an example or series of examples.

This Latin abbreviation stands for “exempli gratia,” which translates to “for the sake of example.” The abbreviation should be written with lowercase letters, with a period after each letter, and followed by a comma .

I enjoy many outdoor activities, e.g. , hiking, camping, and fishing.

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E.g. vs. i.e., other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

“E.g.” and “i.e.” are sometimes confused, but they have different meanings and shouldn’t be used interchangeably:

• E.g. stands for “exempli gratia,” meaning “for example,” and is used to provide specific examples that fall under a more general category.
• I.e. stands for “id est,” meaning “that is,” and is used to clarify or rephrase a statement to make it more precise or specific.

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The latin abbreviation for “ for example ” is e.g. , which stands for “exempli gratia.” This translates to “for the sake of example.”

It is used to introduce an example or a list of examples, as in the following sentence: “Many interesting species of animals ( e.g. , koalas, emus, and kangaroos) are native to Australia.”

The correct abbreviation for “ for example ” is e.g. , not “ex.” “Ex” is sometimes used in informal language, but it’s best to avoid it, since this abbreviation can be confused with other uses of “ex,” such as its use to mean “former” in a term like “ex-boyfriend.”

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Merkus, J. (2023, August 23). For Example Abbreviation (e.g.) | Usage & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 7, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/definitions/for-example-abbreviation/

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Abbreviations in essays

August 22, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. The following is a list of abbreviations in essays you will often come across – mainly in the text, the index, or the bibliography of books designed for serious readers.

2. They are nearly all brief or abbreviated forms of expressions in Latin.

3. Many people also make use of them when taking notes, and they are also used in the footnotes and endnotes of academic writing. Examples below.

4. Don’t use abbreviations in the main text of any formal writing. If you wish to use these terms, they should be written out in full.

5. That is, don’t put e.g. , but write out for example .

6. Notice that a full stop is placed after an abbreviation, but not when the full word is used.

7. This is correct usage, but sometimes the full stop may be omitted in order to avoid double punctuation.

8. Note that these terms are often shown in italics.

9. You should never begin a sentence with an abbreviation.

Here’s the use of abbreviation in an academic footnote. The first reference used edn for edition and p for page. The second reference uses ibid for ‘in the same place’.

2. Judith Butcher, Copy Editing: the Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Authors, and Publishers , 3rd edn., Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.234. 3. Butcher, ibid., p.256

Here’s an example which uses the abbreviated names of two well-known organisations:

The BBC reported yesterday that the leaders of NATO had agreed to discuss the crisis as a matter of urgency.

Abbreviations are commonly used in displaying web site addresses:

http://www.bath.ac.uk/BUBL/home.html

Every term in this address, apart from the names ‘Bath’ and ‘home’, are abbreviations

http = hypertext transfer protocol www = world wide web ac = academic uk = United Kingdom html = hypertext markup language

© Roy Johnson 2003

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How to abbreviate in an essay the title of a work that consists of a name and a surname?

I am writing an essay on the short story "Harrison Bergeron." How should I abbreviate the title if I don't want to write out the whole name? Would it simply be "Bergeron" or "Harrison?"

• writing-style
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• proper-nouns

• 8 Welcome to the site! I would not abbreviate it at all: either Harrison Bergeron or the story where appropriate. –  Cerberus - Reinstate Monica Commented Sep 21, 2014 at 15:14
• 3 How would you feel about 'The Taming', 'The Old Man', 'Robinson', 'Pride' or 'Ben'? –  Edwin Ashworth Commented Sep 21, 2014 at 16:39
• 1 @EdwinAshworth: Stephen Potter recommended that those who wanted to win at Shakespearean criticism refer to Much Ado , or in a close battle, just Much . –  Tim Lymington Commented Sep 21, 2014 at 21:27
• 3 In technical writing , it would be appropriate to add an abbreviation after the first usage of a proper noun if it is long and used many times, e.g., "Harrison Bergeron (HB)." Then later HB can be used. This is probably frowned upon in non-technical writing, and I would agree with Cerberus here. –  Tommy Commented Sep 22, 2014 at 3:11
• 1 @TimLymington Henry raises problems. As might raise eyebrows. With books, Nineteen , The Book and The Black (Guardian's 100 Greatest Novels list) leave a lot to be desired. Not that I'd wish to appear to be a critic. –  Edwin Ashworth Commented Sep 22, 2014 at 6:51

3 Answers 3

Identifying a title by a single word from it is by no means a recent innovation, nor does it seem to be tied to the length of the original wording. Consider The Tragedy of King Lear , cited most often as King Lear , but frequently referred to simply as Lear , as in the opening paragraph of Charles Jennens, " The Tragedy of King Lear, as Lately Published, Vindicated " (1772):

As the new edition of Shakespeare's Lear was attacked in a very rude and scandalous manner, by the Critical Reviewers ; and the patron, the editor, and another person who had no concern therein (but Whom they judged to be the editor) were treated in very abusive and scurrilous terms, by this society of gentlemen , as in their title-page they are pleased to stile themselves ; it was thought proper, upon presenting another play to the public, to vindicate the said edition of Lear from the base aspersions and misrepresentations which these Drawcansirs [that is, broadswords, as opposed to rapiers] in criticism had cast upon it.

Likewise, we find The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club commonly reduced to The Pickwick Papers , and from there sometimes shortened further to Pickwick , as in Joseph Miller, Reading Narrative (1998), excerpted in The Novel: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory 1900–2000 (2009):

The latter two relations, that between author and narrator, that between text and critic, are articulated with special clarity in the passage from Pickwick Papers . In Pickwick , moreover, the way all three examples exploit properties more salient in written, not spoken, language is made explicit.

And some authors regularly refer to A Streetcar Named Desire as Streetcar , as in Philip Kolin, Tennessee Williams: A Guide to Research and Performance (1998):

Cohn usefully comments on the symbology of the names in Streetcar , while Kolin explicates the mythic and gaming allusions behind Jax Beer ("Why Stanley"). Kolin also explores the network of paper signifiers in and underneath the script in Streetcar , including poetry, legal documents, and artifacts, and concludes that for Williams paper is "both script and Scripture" [citation omitted].

Of course, these short forms are helped by the fact that the works they refer to are unlikely to be misidentified by their readers—but that is surely true, too, of the short form Bergeron once you have properly introduced the complete title Harrison Bergeron to your readers. I concur with Lore Sjöberg that Bergeron , being a more memorable identifier than Harrison , would be a better choice for the short-form title.

I would caution you, however, that some readers may react unfavorably to your use of a short form of the title, as Cerberus and Edwin Ashworth do in the comments beneath your question. Also, some titles resist reduction to one word more vigorously than others do; thus for example, having shortened Moby-Dick; or, The Whale to Moby-Dick , I would strongly advise against shortening it further to either Moby or Dick .

Ultimately, your safest bet is probably to follow Cerberus's advice and refer to the title by its full name or (for variety's sake) by a descriptive term such as "the story."

To answer your actual question, if I had to abbreviate it, I'd abbreviate it Bergeron for two reasons. First, because in formal writing and journalism it's more common to refer to someone by their last name, and secondly because "Bergeron" is more unusual, and thus more memorable, than "Harrison."

(That's not a strict rule, though. I'd definitely refer to Pippi Longstocking as Pippi , because calling it Longstocking just sounds pretentious for a silly children's book.)

If the last name more common than the first, as with Pincher Martin for example, I might consider using the first name. More likely, I'd probably just refer to it by the full name. If I was tired of typing it, well, that's what search-and-replace is for.

And really, in the end, I'm not sure I'd abbreviate a two-word title at all in a formal essay, unless the first word was an article.

• This seems a good rule. Although additional points would be (1) see how it's abbreviated by other authors and (2) see how the character is referred to in the book, if you can't get a good answer from either Bergeron seems best. –  Stuart F Commented Oct 19, 2022 at 16:25

I had the same problem when I was writing an essay about Ursula K. Le Guin- I mentioned her novel The Left Hand of Darkness , and I needed to mention it again when I was describing The Dispossessed . My suggestion is to take out as many words as you can without changing the meaning. In my case, I shortened it to Left Hand , in your case, I would say to do Bergeron .

• Welcome to the site! Please try to provide a reason why the choice you recommend is better than the other choice. –  user72323 Commented Apr 13, 2016 at 4:26

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