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Case Studies

More than 70 cases pair ethics concepts with real world situations. From journalism, performing arts, and scientific research to sports, law, and business, these case studies explore current and historic ethical dilemmas, their motivating biases, and their consequences. Each case includes discussion questions, related videos, and a bibliography.

A Million Little Pieces

James Frey’s popular memoir stirred controversy and media attention after it was revealed to contain numerous exaggerations and fabrications.

Abramoff: Lobbying Congress

Super-lobbyist Abramoff was caught in a scheme to lobby against his own clients. Was a corrupt individual or a corrupt system – or both – to blame?

Apple Suppliers & Labor Practices

Is tech company Apple, Inc. ethically obligated to oversee the questionable working conditions of other companies further down their supply chain?

Approaching the Presidency: Roosevelt & Taft

Some presidents view their responsibilities in strictly legal terms, others according to duty. Roosevelt and Taft took two extreme approaches.

Appropriating “Hope”

Fairey’s portrait of Barack Obama raised debate over the extent to which an artist can use and modify another’s artistic work, yet still call it one’s own.

Arctic Offshore Drilling

Competing groups frame the debate over oil drilling off Alaska’s coast in varying ways depending on their environmental and economic interests.

Banning Burkas: Freedom or Discrimination?

The French law banning women from wearing burkas in public sparked debate about discrimination and freedom of religion.

Birthing Vaccine Skepticism

Wakefield published an article riddled with inaccuracies and conflicts of interest that created significant vaccine hesitancy regarding the MMR vaccine.

Blurred Lines of Copyright

Marvin Gaye’s Estate won a lawsuit against Robin Thicke and Pharrell Williams for the hit song “Blurred Lines,” which had a similar feel to one of his songs.

Bullfighting: Art or Not?

Bullfighting has been a prominent cultural and artistic event for centuries, but in recent decades it has faced increasing criticism for animal rights’ abuse.

Buying Green: Consumer Behavior

Do purchasing green products, such as organic foods and electric cars, give consumers the moral license to indulge in unethical behavior?

Cadavers in Car Safety Research

Engineers at Heidelberg University insist that the use of human cadavers in car safety research is ethical because their research can save lives.

Cardinals’ Computer Hacking

St. Louis Cardinals scouting director Chris Correa hacked into the Houston Astros’ webmail system, leading to legal repercussions and a lifetime ban from MLB.

Cheating: Atlanta’s School Scandal

Teachers and administrators at Parks Middle School adjust struggling students’ test scores in an effort to save their school from closure.

Cheating: Sign-Stealing in MLB

The Houston Astros’ sign-stealing scheme rocked the baseball world, leading to a game-changing MLB investigation and fallout.

Cheating: UNC’s Academic Fraud

UNC’s academic fraud scandal uncovered an 18-year scheme of unchecked coursework and fraudulent classes that enabled student-athletes to play sports.

Cheney v. U.S. District Court

A controversial case focuses on Justice Scalia’s personal friendship with Vice President Cheney and the possible conflict of interest it poses to the case.

Christina Fallin: “Appropriate Culturation?”

After Fallin posted a picture of herself wearing a Plain’s headdress on social media, uproar emerged over cultural appropriation and Fallin’s intentions.

Climate Change & the Paris Deal

While climate change poses many abstract problems, the actions (or inactions) of today’s populations will have tangible effects on future generations.

Cover-Up on Campus

While the Baylor University football team was winning on the field, university officials failed to take action when allegations of sexual assault by student athletes emerged.

Covering Female Athletes

Sports Illustrated stirs controversy when their cover photo of an Olympic skier seems to focus more on her physical appearance than her athletic abilities.

Covering Yourself? Journalists and the Bowl Championship

Can news outlets covering the Bowl Championship Series fairly report sports news if their own polls were used to create the news?

Cyber Harassment

After a student defames a middle school teacher on social media, the teacher confronts the student in class and posts a video of the confrontation online.

Defending Freedom of Tweets?

Running back Rashard Mendenhall receives backlash from fans after criticizing the celebration of the assassination of Osama Bin Laden in a tweet.

Dennis Kozlowski: Living Large

Dennis Kozlowski was an effective leader for Tyco in his first few years as CEO, but eventually faced criminal charges over his use of company assets.

Digital Downloads

File-sharing program Napster sparked debate over the legal and ethical dimensions of downloading unauthorized copies of copyrighted music.

Dr. V’s Magical Putter

Journalist Caleb Hannan outed Dr. V as a trans woman, sparking debate over the ethics of Hannan’s reporting, as well its role in Dr. V’s suicide.

East Germany’s Doping Machine

From 1968 to the late 1980s, East Germany (GDR) doped some 9,000 athletes to gain success in international athletic competitions despite being aware of the unfortunate side effects.

Ebola & American Intervention

Did the dispatch of U.S. military units to Liberia to aid in humanitarian relief during the Ebola epidemic help or hinder the process?

Edward Snowden: Traitor or Hero?

Was Edward Snowden’s release of confidential government documents ethically justifiable?

Ethical Pitfalls in Action

Why do good people do bad things? Behavioral ethics is the science of moral decision-making, which explores why and how people make the ethical (and unethical) decisions that they do.

Ethical Use of Home DNA Testing

The rising popularity of at-home DNA testing kits raises questions about privacy and consumer rights.

Flying the Confederate Flag

A heated debate ensues over whether or not the Confederate flag should be removed from the South Carolina State House grounds.

Freedom of Speech on Campus

In the wake of racially motivated offenses, student protests sparked debate over the roles of free speech, deliberation, and tolerance on campus.

Freedom vs. Duty in Clinical Social Work

What should social workers do when their personal values come in conflict with the clients they are meant to serve?

Full Disclosure: Manipulating Donors

When an intern witnesses a donor making a large gift to a non-profit organization under misleading circumstances, she struggles with what to do.

Gaming the System: The VA Scandal

The Veterans Administration’s incentives were meant to spur more efficient and productive healthcare, but not all administrators complied as intended.

German Police Battalion 101

During the Holocaust, ordinary Germans became willing killers even though they could have opted out from murdering their Jewish neighbors.

Head Injuries & American Football

Many studies have linked traumatic brain injuries and related conditions to American football, creating controversy around the safety of the sport.

Head Injuries & the NFL

American football is a rough and dangerous game and its impact on the players’ brain health has sparked a hotly contested debate.

Healthcare Obligations: Personal vs. Institutional

A medical doctor must make a difficult decision when informing patients of the effectiveness of flu shots while upholding institutional recommendations.

High Stakes Testing

In the wake of the No Child Left Behind Act, parents, teachers, and school administrators take different positions on how to assess student achievement.

In-FUR-mercials: Advertising & Adoption

When the Lied Animal Shelter faces a spike in animal intake, an advertising agency uses its moral imagination to increase pet adoptions.

Krogh & the Watergate Scandal

Egil Krogh was a young lawyer working for the Nixon Administration whose ethics faded from view when asked to play a part in the Watergate break-in.

Limbaugh on Drug Addiction

Radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh argued that drug abuse was a choice, not a disease. He later became addicted to painkillers.

U.S. Olympic swimmer Ryan Lochte’s “over-exaggeration” of an incident at the 2016 Rio Olympics led to very real consequences.

Meet Me at Starbucks

Two black men were arrested after an employee called the police on them, prompting Starbucks to implement “racial-bias” training across all its stores.

Myanmar Amber

Buying amber could potentially fund an ethnic civil war, but refraining allows collectors to acquire important specimens that could be used for research.

Negotiating Bankruptcy

Bankruptcy lawyer Gellene successfully represented a mining company during a major reorganization, but failed to disclose potential conflicts of interest.

Pao & Gender Bias

Ellen Pao stirred debate in the venture capital and tech industries when she filed a lawsuit against her employer on grounds of gender discrimination.

Pardoning Nixon

One month after Richard Nixon resigned from the presidency, Gerald Ford made the controversial decision to issue Nixon a full pardon.

Patient Autonomy & Informed Consent

Nursing staff and family members struggle with informed consent when taking care of a patient who has been deemed legally incompetent.

Prenatal Diagnosis & Parental Choice

Debate has emerged over the ethics of prenatal diagnosis and reproductive freedom in instances where testing has revealed genetic abnormalities.

Reporting on Robin Williams

After Robin Williams took his own life, news media covered the story in great detail, leading many to argue that such reporting violated the family’s privacy.

Responding to Child Migration

An influx of children migrants posed logistical and ethical dilemmas for U.S. authorities while intensifying ongoing debate about immigration.

Retracting Research: The Case of Chandok v. Klessig

A researcher makes the difficult decision to retract a published, peer-reviewed article after the original research results cannot be reproduced.

Sacking Social Media in College Sports

In the wake of questionable social media use by college athletes, the head coach at University of South Carolina bans his players from using Twitter.

Selling Enron

Following the deregulation of electricity markets in California, private energy company Enron profited greatly, but at a dire cost.

Snyder v. Phelps

Freedom of speech was put on trial in a case involving the Westboro Baptist Church and their protesting at the funeral of U.S. Marine Matthew Snyder.

Something Fishy at the Paralympics

Rampant cheating has plagued the Paralympics over the years, compromising the credibility and sportsmanship of Paralympian athletes.

Sports Blogs: The Wild West of Sports Journalism?

Deadspin pays an anonymous source for information related to NFL star Brett Favre, sparking debate over the ethics of “checkbook journalism.”

Stangl & the Holocaust

Franz Stangl was the most effective Nazi administrator in Poland, killing nearly one million Jews at Treblinka, but he claimed he was simply following orders.

Teaching Blackface: A Lesson on Stereotypes

A teacher was put on leave for showing a blackface video during a lesson on racial segregation, sparking discussion over how to teach about stereotypes.

The Astros’ Sign-Stealing Scandal

The Houston Astros rode a wave of success, culminating in a World Series win, but it all came crashing down when their sign-stealing scheme was revealed.

The Central Park Five

Despite the indisputable and overwhelming evidence of the innocence of the Central Park Five, some involved in the case refuse to believe it.

The CIA Leak

Legal and political fallout follows from the leak of classified information that led to the identification of CIA agent Valerie Plame.

The Collapse of Barings Bank

When faced with growing losses, investment banker Nick Leeson took big risks in an attempt to get out from under the losses. He lost.

The Costco Model

How can companies promote positive treatment of employees and benefit from leading with the best practices? Costco offers a model.

The FBI & Apple Security vs. Privacy

How can tech companies and government organizations strike a balance between maintaining national security and protecting user privacy?

The Miss Saigon Controversy

When a white actor was cast for the half-French, half-Vietnamese character in the Broadway production of Miss Saigon , debate ensued.

The Sandusky Scandal

Following the conviction of assistant coach Jerry Sandusky for sexual abuse, debate continues on how much university officials and head coach Joe Paterno knew of the crimes.

The Varsity Blues Scandal

A college admissions prep advisor told wealthy parents that while there were front doors into universities and back doors, he had created a side door that was worth exploring.

Providing radiation therapy to cancer patients, Therac-25 had malfunctions that resulted in 6 deaths. Who is accountable when technology causes harm?

Welfare Reform

The Welfare Reform Act changed how welfare operated, intensifying debate over the government’s role in supporting the poor through direct aid.

Wells Fargo and Moral Emotions

In a settlement with regulators, Wells Fargo Bank admitted that it had created as many as two million accounts for customers without their permission.

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Common Ethical Issues: Case Studies and Test Your Knowledge

Case studies.

What follows are three case studies taken from Bernard and Goodyear (1999). Try analyzing the cases from the perspective of a trainee and a supervisor. How does the ethical decision-making model presented in this module apply to the case? You might also want to talk with your supervisor, classmates, professors, or other practitioners about these cases. After the three cases are presented there are some questions that might guide your discussion.

Vanessa has been a marriage and family therapist at an agency for six months. Gary, one of the other three therapists in the agency and the only other single therapist, is her clinical supervisor. It will take Vanessa 2 years under supervision to accrue the experience she needs to be eligible to sit for the state licensing examination for her LMFT. One evening Gary calls Vanessa to inquire whether she would like to go to a day-long workshop with him. The speaker for the workshop specializes in a kind of therapy in which Vanessa has expressed interest. Vanessa accepts and the workshop turns out to be an excellent professional experience. On the way home, Vanessa and Gary stop for dinner. Vanessa picks up the tab to thank Gary for including her. The following day Vanessa is sharing some of the experiences of the workshop with Camille, another therapist at the agency. When Camille asks, “Isn’t Gary your supervisor?” Vanessa feels defensive and misunderstood. Later that day, Vanessa decides to go to her agency director and ask his opinion of the situation. He tells her not to be concerned about it and that Camille “worries about everything.” During her next supervision session, Vanessa chooses not to mention either conversation to Gary (pp. 191-192).

Margaret is a school counselor who has been assigned a trainee from the local university for the academic year. As she observes Noah work with elementary school children, she is increasingly impressed with his skills. She asks him to work with Peter, a nine-year-old, who has not adjusted well to his parents’ recent divorce. Again, she is impressed with Noah’s skill, his warmth and understanding, and ultimately, with the success he has in working with Peter. Margaret is a single parent who is concerned about her nine-year-old son. She decides to ask Noah to see him. Noah is complimented by her confidence in him. Margaret’s son attends a different school, but she arranges to have Noah see him after school hours (p. 192).

Ruth has been assigned to a local mental health hospital for her internship to work with patients who are preparing to be discharged. It is her first day at the site and she is meeting with her site supervisor. He gives her a form to fill out, which asks for information regarding her student malpractice insurance. When Ruth tells her supervisor that she does not carry such insurance, he advises her that it is their policy not to accept any student who does not have insurance. The supervisor also expresses some surprise because this has always been the hospital’s policy and Ruth is not the first student to be assigned to them from her training program (p. 186).

Questions for Case Studies

• What are the main issues in the case?
• What ethical issues are of concern in the case?
• Are there particular breaches of ethical principles? What are they?
• What can the supervisor do, if anything, to resolve the ethical problem(s) presented in the case?
• What can the trainee do, if anything, to resolve the ethical problem(s) presented in the case?
• Is there other information that might have been helpful in the resolution of this case?
• What could have been done to prevent the ethical problem from occurring in the first place?

Test Your Knowledge

What follows are 15 multiple choice items designed to test the knowledge that you have gained as a result of completing this module. Answers are provided at the end. Good Luck!

• epistemology
• eschatology
• Kantian Deontologism
• Consequentialism
• Virtue ethics
• Natural Law
• Respecting autonomy
• Doing no harm (Nonmaleficience)
• Benefiting others (Beneficence)
• Being just (Justice)
• Being faithful (Fidelity)
• They provide protection to consumers and further the professional stance of organizations.
• They provide a vehicle for professional identity.
• They provide a framework to resolve all ethical issues that might face a profession.
• They provide some means of defence for those who conscientiously practice within the ethical guidelines laid down by a particular profession.
• They provide evidence that a particular profession has a body of knowledge and skills that it can proclaim.
• Ethical guidelines
• Ethics scholarship
• supervisor and respected colleagues
• practicum class
• internship class
• Covers the relationship between supervisor and trainee. Trainees are made aware of their responsibilities and those of the supervisor during the clinical supervision process.
• The extent to which interactions between supervisor and trainee can be disclosed to others.
• Your clinical supervisor is also the instructor for one of your classes.
• Addresses the extent to which fair and consistent application of the criteria that governs your training program has been followed.
• Addresses the rights that you have as a participant in a training program.
• file police charges.
• call your professional organization.
• talk to the appropriate person in either your academic department or in the agency in which you are working to determine the proper procedure for filing a grievance.
• report your supervisor to the state licensing board.
• do nothing. It was probably a mistake.

1: d; 2: c; 3: a; 4: d; 5: a; 6: e; 7: c; 8: a; 9: a; 10: d; 11: c; 12: a; 13: e; 14: b; 15: c;

• Related Organizations
• Current ACM Code
• Using the Code
• Software Engineering Code
• Other Codes
• Previous Versions
• Code 2018 Update Project
• Enforcement Procedures and Reporting
• Ask an Ethicist

Case Studies

The ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Practice (“the Code”) is meant to be a  useful code, a document that can inform practice and education. It is useful as the conscience of the profession, but also for individual decision-making. The following resources may be of use in learning to apply the Code to your own situation.

As prescribed by the Preamble of the Code, computing professionals should approach the dilemma with a holistic reading of the principles and evaluate the situation with thoughtful consideration to the circumstances. In all cases, the computing professional should defer to the public good as the paramount consideration. The analyses in the following fictional cases highlight the intended interpretations of members of the 2018 Code task force.

• Malware Disruption : Security vendors and government organizations collaborate to disrupt the operation of an ISP that hosts malware.
• Medical Implant Risk Analysis : A medical implant device maker creates a smart phone application to monitor and control the device.
• Abusive Workplace Behavior : A manager fails to address abusive behavior by a technical team leader.
• Autonomous Active Response Weapons : A defense contractor that specializes in autonomous vehicles begins to integrate automated weaponry.
• Dark UX Patterns : A web developer realizes that their client’s requests are intended to trick users into making accidental and expensive purchases.
• Malicious Inputs to Content Filters : An Internet content filtering service deploys machine learning techniques to automate the classification of blocked content.
• Accessibility in Software Development : A web-based collaboration tool deploys a new inline feature that has significant accessibility issues.

These cases studies are designed for educational purposes to illustrate how to apply the Code to analyze complex situations. All names, businesses, places, events, and incidents are fictitious and are not intended to refer to actual entities.

• Search for:

• Ethics Cases
• Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
• Ethics Resources

Find case studies and scenarios on a variety of fields in applied ethics.

Cases can also be viewed by the following categories:

For permission to reprint cases, submit requests to [email protected] .

Looking to draft your own case studies?  This template provides the basics for writing ethics case studies in technology (though with some modification it could be used in other fields as well).

A fitness tracker aimed at children raises issues of design ethics, incentives, and more.

Six case studies explore how accessibility intersects with health care, education, and workplace ethics. The cases serve as a foundation for difficult dialogues, in-class discussions, or workshops and should be used by stakeholders involved in disability advocacy, education, health care, and policy-making.

AI-generated text, voices, and images used for entertainment productions and impersonation raise ethical questions.

The importance of academic institutions in shaping the societal narrative is increasingly showcased by constant media exposure and continuous requests for social commentary. This case study outlines effective methodologies of leadership, ethics, and change management within an organization, for the purpose of motivating and engaging stakeholders to empathize with and carry out a shared directive.

How might news platforms and products ensure that ethical journalism on chronic issues is not drowned out by the noise of runaway political news cycles?

Ethical questions arise in interactions among students, instructors, administrators, and providers of AI tools.

In water rights discussions, there is an ethical responsibility to include Indigenous people in both conversations and legislation decisions.

In this business ethics case study, Swedish multinational company IKEA faced accusations relating to child labor abuses in the rug industry in Pakistan which posed a serious challenge for the company and its supply chain management goals.

A dog may be humanity’s best friend. But that may not always be the case in the workplace.

A recent college graduate works in the finance and analytics department of a large publicly traded software company and discovers an alarming discrepancy in sales records, raising concerns about the company’s commitment to truthful reporting to investors. 

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• SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS

Home > Ethics > Ethics Case Studies > Kobe Bryant’s Past: A Tweet Too Soon?

Ethics Case Studies – Index – Kobe Bryant’s Past: A Tweet Too Soon? – A controversial apology – Using the ‘Holocaust’ Metaphor – Aaargh! Pirates! (and the Press) – Reigning on the Parade – Controversy over a Concert – Deep Throat, and His Motive – When Sources Won’t Talk – A Suspect “Confession” – Who’s the “Predator”? – The Media’s Foul Ball – Publishing Drunk Drivers’ Photos – Naming Victims of Sex Crimes – A Self-Serving Leak – The Times and Jayson Blair – Cooperating with the Government – Offensive Images – The Sting – A Media-Savvy Killer – A Congressman’s Past – Crafting a Policy

WHAT: On January 26, 2020, Kobe Bryant, a former professional basketball player, died at the age of 41 in a helicopter crash in the Los Angeles area along with nine other people, including his 13-year-old daughter Gianna. They were on their way from Orange County to Thousand Oaks to participate in a tournament basketball game at Mamba Sports Academy. Bryant joined the National Basketball Association straight out of high school and won five NBA titles in his career playing for the Los Angeles Lakers. He became one of basketball’s greatest players of all time, surpassing Michael Jordan for third place on the NBA all-time scoring list in 2014. Bryant retired in 2016 and went on to earn an Academy Award in 2018 for Best Animated Short Film. In July 2003, Bryant was charged with a count of sexual assault involving a 19-year-old woman working at a hotel in Edwards, Colorado. Bryant conceded he was guilty of adultery but said he was innocent of the rape charge. The criminal case was dismissed in 2004, and in 2005 he reached a settlement in a civil suit filed by his accuser. While the majority of social media praised Bryant after his death, within a few hours after the story broke, Felicia Sonmez, a reporter for The Washington Post , tweeted a link to an article from 2003 about the allegations of sexual assault against Bryant. Sonmez did not add any personal commentary to the tweet, but her post received a lot of backlash, including threats. Sonmez said she expected to have a large negative response. “I can understand that it would be difficult for people to read that,” she said, “but it’s also difficult, I imagine, for all of the [sexual assault] survivors in the country to see these allegations essentially be erased, which is how I felt in those couple of hours in the newsroom.” Sonmez deleted the tweet later the same day. Tweets from the public in response said Sonmez’s actions were “insensitive,” “cold hearted,” “heartless” and “show no respect for [Bryant’s] family/friends.” The next day, a Monday, Tracy Grant, a managing editor at The Washington Post , announced that Sonmez had been placed on administrative leave while the Post reviewed whether her tweets about Bryant’s death violated the newsroom’s social media policy. "The tweets displayed poor judgment that undermined the work of her colleagues," Grant said. Afterward, though, The Washington Post issued a statement in support of Sonmez.

Question: Is there a limit to truth-telling? How long (if at all) should a journalist wait after a person’s death before resurfacing sensitive information about their past?

WHO: The decision-makers in this case are Felicia Sonmez and management at The Washington Post , who have to weigh the possibility that more harm will be caused to the family, friends and fans of Kobe Bryant against the urge to tell the entire story immediately, the constant pressure to increase circulation and to get the full story first, as well as thinking about the organization’s reputation. Additionally, there is pressure from the public who may feel deep sadness for the sudden loss, or from survivors who may see the allegations being “erased.” The stakeholders include Kobe Bryant, whose legacy is being negatively impacted, as well as his family, friends and fans who have just experienced a very sudden and traumatic event. Although Bryant is no longer present to witness the tweets, one incident in his past is defining who he was as a person moments after his death. Felicia Sonmez leaves little time for those who loved Bryant to mourn his death and the death of the others that were involved in the crash. Other stakeholders include Felicia Sonmez and The Washington Post, whose reputations are on the line. WHY: Does a journalist’s dedication to seeking and telling the truth outweigh the possibility of causing more harm to the family, friends and fans of the deceased? Although it is the job of a reporter to tell engaging and credible stories, is there a point at which it is more appropriate for a reporter to back off and leave the story alone in order to give proper privacy, respect and time to those involved? Minimizing harm entails showing sensitivity when dealing with children, victims of crime or people who are especially vulnerable due to trauma, injury, illness or other factors. Integrity implies providing anyone accused of misbehavior a reasonable opportunity to respond. In this case, Bryant had no way of responding to the resurfacing of accusations from his past misbehavior. Telling the truth offers readers, viewers and listeners a complete picture of the subject involved, which helps gain a fuller understanding of who that person was. Timeliness is important as well. The timing of Sonmez’s tweets was harmful to many people. But while the timing of the tweets is debatable, the case is a relevant detail in Bryant’s life. The Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics says that “Ethical journalism treats sources, subjects, colleagues and members of the public as human beings deserving of respect.” This is where this case becomes a double-edged sword; on one hand, respect must be paid toward Bryant and his family, friends and fans; on the other hand, respect must be paid toward survivors of sexual assault. However, SPJ also believes that journalists should “balance the public’s need for information against potential harm or discomfort. The pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance or undue intrusiveness.” If we apply the ethical theory that seeks to achieve “the greatest good for the greatest number,” we can conclude that Sonmez should not have tweeted the link that day. HOW: Is there a limit to truth-telling? How long (if at all) should a journalist wait after a person’s death before resurfacing sensitive information about their past? Although there should not be a limit to telling the truth, respect and timeliness need to be considered when doing so. If Sonmez had tweeted the link a few days after Bryant’s death, there probably would not have been as much backlash.

— by Lauren Zurcher, University of Denver

SPJ News –  SPJ strongly condemns Oklahoma Dept. of Ed. for denying journalists access to news conference –  $175M California journalism agreement sparks debate on industry impact and inclusivity –  SPJ celebrates the release of Wall Street Journal reporter Evan Gershkovich

Ethics: To Tell or Not to Tell-A Case Study

By: Lee J. Zook

Winter 2001, Vol. 8, No. 1

by Lee J. Zook, Ph.D.

Some years ago, prior to teaching in undergraduate social work, I was working with families and children in an outpatient psychiatric setting, Children' Agency. In the previous year, I had completed my MSW, having practiced social work several years with an undergraduate degree. The Director of Social Services at the Children' Agency was my supervisor. We used a team model in our work, with any particular team consisting of at least a social worker, a psychologist, and a psychiatrist. Sometimes other professionals, such as educational specialists, early childhood development specialists, and social group workers were also on the teams. I had first-rate colleagues in whom I could confide about clinical and ethical issues. Continuous learning was valued, especially as it related to clinical practice.

While I was at Children' Agency, Mary Jones (a fictitious name) applied for a job as a social worker. Four years earlier, I had seen Mary as a client while working for an emergency service at Adult Hospital, a psychiatric facility for adults.

My contact with Mary had been rather brief at Adult Hospital. She came to be admitted to the hospital as her psychiatric condition was deteriorating. Mary told me she was a social worker with an MSW and had been in and out of psychiatric hospitals for many years. I located her chart, noted that she was previously diagnosed with schizophrenia, undifferentiated type, did the basic paperwork that social workers did on admission, consulted with the admitting psychiatrist, and took her to the hospital ward. It was a rather simple, routine admission; there were no police or court documents, and she was a voluntary client. However, the situation was a bit unsettling. My feelings had to do with the fact that I was leaving my position in the near future to pursue an MSW, and here I was, a young, rather inexperienced, “untrained” social worker, admitting an older, more experienced social worker with an MSW to a psychiatric hospital. However, I went on with my business and put the event in perspective. After all, academic degrees do not preclude a person from having a mental illness.

So now, three years later, I had my MSW, and Mary came for a job interview at Children' Agency where I was employed. I had no responsibility for employment decisions. My supervisor, who was the Director of Social Services, and the psychiatrist, who was also the Executive Director, made these decisions. But I was faced with an uncomfortable dilemma-an ethical dilemma for which I did not see any clear answer.

On one hand, I was concerned about whether Mary would function as a competent professional colleague. Was her illness in remission? If so, would it remain in remission? If not, what would the impact be on clients? Would she be able to function adequately to work with clients who came to the agency? If she would not, would harm come to clients?

On the other hand, my knowledge of her illness was unquestionably confidential. Further, what right or responsibility did I have to suggest that a person who had a mental illness should not be hired? What right or responsibility did I have to divulge information about her (past) condition to anyone?

There was also the possibility that I could speak to Mary and verbalize my concerns to her. Would this be appropriate? Would Mary remember who I was? After three years, did the brief encounter we had give me the prerogative to confront her about her past or ask about her present condition?

The following discussion focuses on the NASW Code of Ethics and how it may be useful in this situation. At the time, I was not this thorough and did not think much about the Code of Ethics. I struggled in my own mind about what to do. If this were occurring now, I would first of all confer with the Code of Ethics. The first sentence of the preamble of the Code states:

The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty.

In this situation, one could contend that clients coming to Children' Agency were the vulnerable people referred to in the Preamble. On the other hand, one could also make a case that Mary, a person who is living with a persistent and long-term mental illness, is a vulnerable person.

As a social worker, I am particularly concerned about creating opportunity for persons with disability. And in this instance, vulnerability of a specific person could be viewed as more important than vulnerability of a general client population.

In further examination of the Code, Section 1.07 Privacy and Confidentiality, paragraph (c) is instructive.

Social workers should protect the confidentiality of all information obtained in the course of professional service, except for compelling professional reasons. The general expectation that social workers will keep information confidential does not apply when disclosure is necessary to prevent serious, foreseeable, and imminent harm to a client or other identifiable person.

This paragraph seems to suggest intervention in the situation with Mary is not appropriate. Do not break confidentiality. However, it also says that there are situations in which confidentiality is not the primary concern. Disclosure of confidential information may be made when it is crucial to “prevent serious, foreseeable, and imminent harm to a client or other identifiable person.” But could I argue that there was such serious, foreseeable and imminent harm to anyone? Would it be appropriate, with the knowledge that I had, to suggest such harm would occur? If the answer to the last question is affirmative, what does that infer about persons with a mental illness?

Other paragraphs in Section 2.09, Impairment of Colleagues, are also on point.

(a) Social workers who have direct knowledge of a social work colleague' impairment that is due to personal problems, psychosocial distress, substance abuse, or mental health difficulties and that interferes with practice effectiveness should consult with that colleague when feasible and assist the colleague in taking remedial action.

(b) Social workers who believe that a social work colleague' impairment interferes with practice effectiveness and that the colleague has not taken adequate steps to address the impairment should take action through appropriate channels established by employers, agencies, NASW, licensing and regulatory bodies, and other professional organizations.

I did have knowledge of Mary' impairment. However, to infer that her impairment would interfere with her work as a professional social worker could be seen as prejudiced toward persons with a mental illness. Did I have enough information about Mary to “consult” with Mary as paragraph (a) suggests?

Further, Section 4.02, Discrimination, states that: “Social workers should not practice, condone, facilitate, or collaborate with any form of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, or mental or physical disability.” (Italics added.) This suggests that revealing anything about Mary' condition or even confronting Mary with the situation would be discriminatory.

Finally, since Mary was a professional, didn’t she have the responsibility to make sure her “mental health difficulties” did not interfere with her professional judgment and performance as is stated in Section 4.05, Impairment, paragraph a?

(a) Social workers should not allow their own personal problems, psychosocial distress, legal problems, substance abuse, or mental health difficulties to interfere with their professional judgment and performance or to jeopardize the best interests of people for whom they have a professional responsibility.

Paragraph b. of Section 4.05, Impairment goes on to say, in part, that social workers whose “mental health difficulties interfere with their professional judgment and performance” need to seek help, make adjustments in their work situation, or quit practicing.

Doesn’t this mean that since Mary is a professional, she needs to deal with these issues? If that is the case, what is my role?

Obviously, the Code is not a clear set of rules. Rather, it gives guidance to social workers. While it is instructive, the Code does not specify what course of action is best in all instances. As stated in the Preamble, “Core values, and the principles that flow from them, must be balanced within the context and complexity of the human experience.” Professional judgment also comes into play in making ethical decisions.

In summary, there seemed to be no ideal course of action in this situation. I did not know how to predict what would happen if I talked with Mary. It is conceivable that I would have a colleague who was less than happy with my reminding her of her illness. If I did intervene by reporting to persons responsible for hiring, confidential information would be divulged. I could be identified as practicing discrimination toward persons with a mental illness. If I did not intervene, and she was hired, harm could come to clients.

There seemed to be no ideal answer and no way to avoid the situation. There may have been other options, but none seemed apparent to me at the time.

When I relate this case in class, I ask students to work in groups, make a decision, and explain to the rest of the class how they came to their conclusion. Obviously, the Code of Ethics should be a guide in such decisions. But other questions about how to make these types of decisions are also important. Is it appropriate to discuss such issues with my other colleagues? If yes, under what circumstances should such issues be discussed, formally or informally? Should a professional social worker consult with the National Association of Social Workers about such a decision? In general, should a supervisor be consulted about such decisions? In this instance, this would not have seemed appropriate, as the supervisor was also the person in charge of hiring.

In conclusion, there are times in social work practice when professionals are placed in situations, through no wrongdoing on anybody' part, in which dilemmas occur because of a conflict in values or ethical principles within the situation itself. In those situations, it is not a matter of choosing good versus evil, or choosing right versus wrong. It is a matter of choosing between the better of two goods or, possibly more often, the lesser of two evils. Making those decisions is often not pleasant. In fact, it can be quite anxiety provoking. But it is also impossible to side step the issue when doing nothing will predictably yield a certain outcome.

I would welcome a discussion about this case. What would you do? How would you decide what you would do? What besides the Code of Ethics should aid one in making this decision? These are some of the questions that we could discuss together.

National Association of Social Workers. (1999). NASW Code of Ethics. Available online at http://www.socialworkers.org/Code/ethics.htm .

Lee J. Zook, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Social Work at Luther College in Decorah, Iowa.

Copyright © 2001 White Hat Communications. All rights reserved. From THE NEW SOCIAL WORKER , Winter 2001, Vol. 8, No. 1. For reprints of this or other articles from THE NEW SOCIAL WORKER (or for permission to reprint), contact Linda Grobman, publisher/editor, at P.O. Box 5390, Harrisburg, PA 17110-0390, or at [email protected] .

All material published on this website Copyright 1994-2023 White Hat Communications. All rights reserved. Please contact the publisher for permission to reproduce or reprint any materials on this site. Opinions expressed on this site are the opinions of the writer and do not necessarily represent the views of the publisher. As an Amazon Associate, we earn from qualifying purchases.

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Doha Declaration

Education for justice.

• Agenda Day 1
• Agenda Day 2
• Agenda Day 3
• Agenda Day 4
• Registration
• Breakout Sessions for Primary and Secondary Level
• Breakout Sessions for Tertiary Level
• E4J Youth Competition
• India - Lockdown Learners
• Chuka, Break the Silence
• The Online Zoo
• I would like a community where ...
• Staying safe online
• Let's be respectful online
• We can all be heroes
• Respect for all
• We all have rights
• A mosaic of differences
• The right thing to do
• Solving ethical dilemmas
• UNODC-UNESCO Guide for Policymakers
• UNODC-UNESCO Handbooks for Teachers
• Justice Accelerators

Introduction

• Organized Crime
• Trafficking in Persons & Smuggling of Migrants
• Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Reform
• Crime Prevention, Criminal Justice & SDGs
• UN Congress on Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice
• Commission on Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice
• Conference of the Parties to UNTOC
• Conference of the States Parties to UNCAC
• Rules for Simulating Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Bodies
• Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice
• Engage with Us
• Contact Us about MUN
• Conferences Supporting E4J
• Cyberstrike
• Play for Integrity
• Running out of Time
• Zorbs Reloaded
• Developing a Rationale for Using the Video
• Previewing the Anti-Corruption Video
• Viewing the Video with a Purpose
• Post-viewing Activities
• Previewing the Firearms Video
• Rationale for Using the Video
• Previewing the Human Trafficking Video
• Previewing the Organized Crime Video
• Previewing the Video
• Criminal Justice & Crime Prevention
• Corruption & Integrity
• Human Trafficking & Migrant Smuggling
• Firearms Trafficking
• Terrorism & Violent Extremism
• Introduction & Learning Outcomes
• Corruption - Baseline Definition
• Effects of Corruption
• Deeper Meanings of Corruption
• Measuring Corruption
• Possible Class Structure
• Core Reading
• Advanced Reading
• Student Assessment
• Additional Teaching Tools
• Guidelines for Stand-Alone Course
• Appendix: How Corruption Affects the SDGs
• What is Governance?
• What is Good Governance?
• Corruption and Bad Governance
• Governance Reforms and Anti-Corruption
• Guidelines for Stand-alone Course
• Corruption and Democracy
• Corruption and Authoritarian Systems
• Hybrid Systems and Syndromes of Corruption
• The Deep Democratization Approach
• Political Parties and Political Finance
• Political Institution-building as a Means to Counter Corruption
• Manifestations and Consequences of Public Sector Corruption
• Causes of Public Sector Corruption
• Theories that Explain Corruption
• Corruption in Public Procurement
• Corruption in State-Owned Enterprises
• Responses to Public Sector Corruption
• Preventing Public Sector Corruption
• Forms & Manifestations of Private Sector Corruption
• Consequences of Private Sector Corruption
• Causes of Private Sector Corruption
• Responses to Private Sector Corruption
• Preventing Private Sector Corruption
• Collective Action & Public-Private Partnerships against Corruption
• Transparency as a Precondition
• Detection Mechanisms - Auditing and Reporting
• Whistle-blowing Systems and Protections
• Investigation of Corruption
• Introduction and Learning Outcomes
• Brief background on the human rights system
• Overview of the corruption-human rights nexus
• Impact of corruption on specific human rights
• Approaches to assessing the corruption-human rights nexus
• Human-rights based approach
• Defining sex, gender and gender mainstreaming
• Gender differences in corruption
• Theories explaining the gender–corruption nexus
• Gendered impacts of corruption
• Anti-corruption and gender mainstreaming
• Manifestations of corruption in education
• Costs of corruption in education
• Causes of corruption in education
• Fighting corruption in education
• Core terms and concepts
• The role of citizens in fighting corruption
• The role, risks and challenges of CSOs fighting corruption
• The role of the media in fighting corruption
• Access to information: a condition for citizen participation
• ICT as a tool for citizen participation in anti-corruption efforts
• Government obligations to ensure citizen participation in anti-corruption efforts

Teaching Guide

• Brief History of Terrorism
• 19th Century Terrorism
• League of Nations & Terrorism
• United Nations & Terrorism
• Terrorist Victimization
• Exercises & Case Studies
• Radicalization & Violent Extremism
• Preventing & Countering Violent Extremism
• Drivers of Violent Extremism
• International Approaches to PVE &CVE
• Regional & Multilateral Approaches
• Defining Rule of Law
• UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy
• International Cooperation & UN CT Strategy
• Legal Sources & UN CT Strategy
• Regional & National Approaches
• International Legal Frameworks
• International Human Rights Law
• International Humanitarian Law
• International Refugee Law
• Current Challenges to International Legal Framework
• Defining Terrorism
• Criminal Justice Responses
• Treaty-based Crimes of Terrorism
• Core International Crimes
• International Courts and Tribunals
• African Region
• Inter-American Region
• Asian Region
• European Region
• Middle East & Gulf Regions
• Core Principles of IHL
• Categorization of Armed Conflict
• Classification of Persons
• IHL, Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism
• Relationship between IHL & intern. human rights law
• Limitations Permitted by Human Rights Law
• Derogation during Public Emergency
• Examples of States of Emergency & Derogations
• International Human Rights Instruments
• Regional Human Rights Instruments
• Extra-territorial Application of Right to Life
• Arbitrary Deprivation of Life
• Death Penalty
• Enforced Disappearances
• Armed Conflict Context
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
• Convention against Torture et al.
• International Legal Framework
• Key Contemporary Issues
• Investigative Phase
• Trial & Sentencing Phase
• Armed Conflict
• Case Studies
• Special Investigative Techniques
• Surveillance & Interception of Communications
• Privacy & Intelligence Gathering in Armed Conflict
• Accountability & Oversight of Intelligence Gathering
• Principle of Non-Discrimination
• Freedom of Religion
• Freedom of Expression
• Freedom of Assembly
• Freedom of Association
• Fundamental Freedoms
• Definition of 'Victim'
• Effects of Terrorism
• Access to Justice
• Recognition of the Victim
• Human Rights Instruments
• Criminal Justice Mechanisms
• Instruments for Victims of Terrorism
• National Approaches
• Key Challenges in Securing Reparation
• Topic 1. Contemporary issues relating to conditions conducive both to the spread of terrorism and the rule of law
• Topic 2. Contemporary issues relating to the right to life
• Topic 3. Contemporary issues relating to foreign terrorist fighters
• Topic 4. Contemporary issues relating to non-discrimination and fundamental freedoms
• Module 16: Linkages between Organized Crime and Terrorism
• Thematic Areas
• Content Breakdown
• Module Adaptation & Design Guidelines
• Teaching Methods

Acknowledgements

• 1. Introducing United Nations Standards & Norms on CPCJ vis-à-vis International Law
• 2. Scope of United Nations Standards & Norms on CPCJ
• 3. United Nations Standards & Norms on CPCJ in Operation
• 1. Definition of Crime Prevention
• 2. Key Crime Prevention Typologies
• 2. (cont.) Tonry & Farrington’s Typology
• 3. Crime Problem-Solving Approaches
• 4. What Works
• United Nations Entities
• Regional Crime Prevention Councils/Institutions
• Key Clearinghouses
• Systematic Reviews
• 1. Introduction to International Standards & Norms
• 2. Identifying the Need for Legal Aid
• 3. Key Components of the Right of Access to Legal Aid
• 4. Access to Legal Aid for Those with Specific Needs
• 5. Models for Governing, Administering and Funding Legal Aid
• 6. Models for Delivering Legal Aid Services
• 7. Roles and Responsibilities of Legal Aid Providers
• 8. Quality Assurance and Legal Aid Services
• 1. Context for Use of Force by Law Enforcement Officials
• 2. Legal Framework
• 3. General Principles of Use of Force in Law Enforcement
• 4. Use of Firearms
• 5. Use of “Less-Lethal” Weapons
• 6. Protection of Especially Vulnerable Groups
• 7. Use of Force during Assemblies
• 1. Policing in democracies & need for accountability, integrity, oversight
• 2. Key mechanisms & actors in police accountability, oversight
• 3. Crosscutting & contemporary issues in police accountability
• 1. Introducing Aims of Punishment, Imprisonment & Prison Reform
• 2. Current Trends, Challenges & Human Rights
• 3. Towards Humane Prisons & Alternative Sanctions
• 1. Aims and Significance of Alternatives to Imprisonment
• 2. Justifying Punishment in the Community
• 3. Pretrial Alternatives
• 4. Post Trial Alternatives
• 5. Evaluating Alternatives
• 1. Concept, Values and Origin of Restorative Justice
• 2. Overview of Restorative Justice Processes
• 3. How Cost Effective is Restorative Justice?
• 4. Issues in Implementing Restorative Justice
• 1. Gender-Based Discrimination & Women in Conflict with the Law
• 2. Vulnerabilities of Girls in Conflict with the Law
• 3. Discrimination and Violence against LGBTI Individuals
• 4. Gender Diversity in Criminal Justice Workforce
• 1. Ending Violence against Women
• 2. Human Rights Approaches to Violence against Women
• 3. Who Has Rights in this Situation?
• 4. What about the Men?
• 5. Local, Regional & Global Solutions to Violence against Women & Girls
• 1. Understanding the Concept of Victims of Crime
• 2. Impact of Crime, including Trauma
• 3. Right of Victims to Adequate Response to their Needs
• 4. Collecting Victim Data
• 5. Victims and their Participation in Criminal Justice Process
• 6. Victim Services: Institutional and Non-Governmental Organizations
• 7. Outlook on Current Developments Regarding Victims
• 8. Victims of Crime and International Law
• 1. The Many Forms of Violence against Children
• 2. The Impact of Violence on Children
• 3. States' Obligations to Prevent VAC and Protect Child Victims
• 4. Improving the Prevention of Violence against Children
• 5. Improving the Criminal Justice Response to VAC
• 6. Addressing Violence against Children within the Justice System
• 1. The Role of the Justice System
• 2. Convention on the Rights of the Child & International Legal Framework on Children's Rights
• 3. Justice for Children
• 4. Justice for Children in Conflict with the Law
• 5. Realizing Justice for Children
• 1a. Judicial Independence as Fundamental Value of Rule of Law & of Constitutionalism
• 1b. Main Factors Aimed at Securing Judicial Independence
• 2a. Public Prosecutors as ‘Gate Keepers’ of Criminal Justice
• 2b. Institutional and Functional Role of Prosecutors
• 2c. Other Factors Affecting the Role of Prosecutors
• Basics of Computing
• Global Connectivity and Technology Usage Trends
• Cybercrime in Brief
• Cybercrime Trends
• Cybercrime Prevention
• Offences against computer data and systems
• Computer-related offences
• Content-related offences
• The Role of Cybercrime Law
• Harmonization of Laws
• International and Regional Instruments
• International Human Rights and Cybercrime Law
• Digital Evidence
• Digital Forensics
• Standards and Best Practices for Digital Forensics
• Reporting Cybercrime
• Who Conducts Cybercrime Investigations?
• Obstacles to Cybercrime Investigations
• Knowledge Management
• Legal and Ethical Obligations
• Handling of Digital Evidence
• Digital Evidence Admissibility
• Sovereignty and Jurisdiction
• Formal International Cooperation Mechanisms
• Informal International Cooperation Mechanisms
• Data Retention, Preservation and Access
• Challenges Relating to Extraterritorial Evidence
• National Capacity and International Cooperation
• Internet Governance
• Cybersecurity Strategies: Basic Features
• National Cybersecurity Strategies
• International Cooperation on Cybersecurity Matters
• Cybersecurity Posture
• Assets, Vulnerabilities and Threats
• Vulnerability Disclosure
• Cybersecurity Measures and Usability
• Situational Crime Prevention
• Incident Detection, Response, Recovery & Preparedness
• Privacy: What it is and Why it is Important
• Privacy and Security
• Cybercrime that Compromises Privacy
• Data Protection Legislation
• Data Breach Notification Laws
• Enforcement of Privacy and Data Protection Laws
• Intellectual Property: What it is
• Types of Intellectual Property
• Causes for Cyber-Enabled Copyright & Trademark Offences
• Protection & Prevention Efforts
• Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
• Cyberstalking and Cyberharassment
• Cyberbullying
• Gender-Based Interpersonal Cybercrime
• Interpersonal Cybercrime Prevention
• Cyber Organized Crime: What is it?
• Conceptualizing Organized Crime & Defining Actors Involved
• Criminal Groups Engaging in Cyber Organized Crime
• Cyber Organized Crime Activities
• Preventing & Countering Cyber Organized Crime
• Cyberespionage
• Cyberterrorism
• Cyberwarfare
• Information Warfare, Disinformation & Electoral Fraud
• Responses to Cyberinterventions
• Framing the Issue of Firearms
• Direct Impact of Firearms
• Indirect Impacts of Firearms on States or Communities
• International and National Responses
• Typology and Classification of Firearms
• Common Firearms Types
• 'Other' Types of Firearms
• Parts and Components
• History of the Legitimate Arms Market
• Need for a Legitimate Market
• Key Actors in the Legitimate Market
• Authorized & Unauthorized Arms Transfers
• Illegal Firearms in Social, Cultural & Political Context
• Supply, Demand & Criminal Motivations
• Larger Scale Firearms Trafficking Activities
• Smaller Scale Trafficking Activities
• Sources of Illicit Firearms
• Consequences of Illicit Markets
• International Public Law & Transnational Law
• International Instruments with Global Outreach
• Commonalities, Differences & Complementarity between Global Instruments
• Tools to Support Implementation of Global Instruments
• Other United Nations Processes
• The Sustainable Development Goals
• Multilateral & Regional Instruments
• Scope of National Firearms Regulations
• National Firearms Strategies & Action Plans
• Harmonization of National Legislation with International Firearms Instruments
• Assistance for Development of National Firearms Legislation
• Firearms Trafficking as a Cross-Cutting Element
• Organized Crime and Organized Criminal Groups
• Criminal Gangs
• Terrorist Groups
• Interconnections between Organized Criminal Groups & Terrorist Groups
• Gangs - Organized Crime & Terrorism: An Evolving Continuum
• International Response
• International and National Legal Framework
• Firearms Related Offences
• Role of Law Enforcement
• Firearms as Evidence
• Use of Special Investigative Techniques
• International Cooperation and Information Exchange
• Prosecution and Adjudication of Firearms Trafficking
• Teaching Methods & Principles
• Ethical Learning Environments
• Overview of Modules
• Module Adaption & Design Guidelines
• Table of Exercises
• Basic Terms
• Forms of Gender Discrimination
• Ethics of Care
• Case Studies for Professional Ethics
• Case Studies for Role Morality
• Additional Exercises
• Defining Organized Crime
• Definition in Convention
• Similarities & Differences
• Activities, Organization, Composition
• Thinking Critically Through Fiction
• Excerpts of Legislation
• Research & Independent Study Questions
• Legal Definitions of Organized Crimes
• Criminal Association
• Definitions in the Organized Crime Convention
• Criminal Organizations and Enterprise Laws
• Enabling Offence: Obstruction of Justice
• Drug Trafficking
• Wildlife & Forest Crime
• Counterfeit Products Trafficking
• Falsified Medical Products
• Trafficking in Cultural Property
• Trafficking in Persons
• Case Studies & Exercises
• Extortion Racketeering
• Loansharking
• Links to Corruption
• Bribery versus Extortion
• Money-Laundering
• Liability of Legal Persons
• How much Organized Crime is there?
• Alternative Ways for Measuring
• Measuring Product Markets
• Risk Assessment
• Key Concepts of Risk Assessment
• Risk Assessment of Organized Crime Groups
• Risk Assessment of Product Markets
• Risk Assessment in Practice
• Positivism: Environmental Influences
• Classical: Pain-Pleasure Decisions
• Structural Factors
• Ethical Perspective
• Crime Causes & Facilitating Factors
• Models and Structure
• Hierarchical Model
• Local, Cultural Model
• Enterprise or Business Model
• Groups vs Activities
• Networked Structure
• Jurisdiction
• Investigators of Organized Crime
• Controlled Deliveries
• Physical & Electronic Surveillance
• Undercover Operations
• Financial Analysis
• Use of Informants
• Rights of Victims & Witnesses
• Role of Prosecutors
• Adversarial vs Inquisitorial Legal Systems
• Mitigating Punishment
• Granting Immunity from Prosecution
• Witness Protection
• Aggravating & Mitigating Factors
• Sentencing Options
• Alternatives to Imprisonment
• Death Penalty & Organized Crime
• Backgrounds of Convicted Offenders
• Confiscation
• Confiscation in Practice
• Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA)
• Extradition
• Transfer of Criminal Proceedings
• Transfer of Sentenced Persons
• Module 12: Prevention of Organized Crime
• Adoption of Organized Crime Convention
• Historical Context
• Features of the Convention
• Related international instruments
• Conference of the Parties
• Roles of Participants
• Structure and Flow
• Recommended Topics
• Background Materials
• What is Sex / Gender / Intersectionality?
• Knowledge about Gender in Organized Crime
• Gender and Organized Crime
• Gender and Different Types of Organized Crime
• Definitions and Terminology
• Organized crime and Terrorism - International Legal Framework
• International Terrorism-related Conventions
• UNSC Resolutions on Terrorism
• Organized Crime Convention and its Protocols
• Theoretical Frameworks on Linkages between Organized Crime and Terrorism
• Typologies of Criminal Behaviour Associated with Terrorism
• Terrorism and Drug Trafficking
• Terrorism and Trafficking in Weapons
• Terrorism, Crime and Trafficking in Cultural Property
• Trafficking in Persons and Terrorism
• Intellectual Property Crime and Terrorism
• Kidnapping for Ransom and Terrorism
• Exploitation of Natural Resources and Terrorism
• Review and Assessment Questions
• Research and Independent Study Questions
• Criminalization of Smuggling of Migrants
• UNTOC & the Protocol against Smuggling of Migrants
• Offences under the Protocol
• Financial & Other Material Benefits
• Aggravating Circumstances
• Criminal Liability
• Non-Criminalization of Smuggled Migrants
• Scope of the Protocol
• Humanitarian Exemption
• Migrant Smuggling v. Irregular Migration
• Migrant Smuggling vis-a-vis Other Crime Types
• Other Resources
• Assistance and Protection in the Protocol
• International Human Rights and Refugee Law
• Vulnerable groups
• Positive and Negative Obligations of the State
• Identification of Smuggled Migrants
• Participation in Legal Proceedings
• Role of Non-Governmental Organizations
• Smuggled Migrants & Other Categories of Migrants
• Short-, Mid- and Long-Term Measures
• Criminal Justice Reponse: Scope
• Investigative & Prosecutorial Approaches
• Different Relevant Actors & Their Roles
• Testimonial Evidence
• Financial Investigations
• Non-Governmental Organizations
• ‘Outside the Box’ Methodologies
• Intra- and Inter-Agency Coordination
• Admissibility of Evidence
• International Cooperation
• Exchange of Information
• Non-Criminal Law Relevant to Smuggling of Migrants
• Administrative Approach
• Complementary Activities & Role of Non-criminal Justice Actors
• Macro-Perspective in Addressing Smuggling of Migrants
• Human Security
• International Aid and Cooperation
• Migration & Migrant Smuggling
• Mixed Migration Flows
• Social Politics of Migrant Smuggling
• Vulnerability
• Profile of Smugglers
• Role of Organized Criminal Groups
• Humanitarianism, Security and Migrant Smuggling
• Crime of Trafficking in Persons
• The Issue of Consent
• The Purpose of Exploitation
• The abuse of a position of vulnerability
• Indicators of Trafficking in Persons
• Distinction between Trafficking in Persons and Other Crimes
• Misconceptions Regarding Trafficking in Persons
• Root Causes
• Supply Side Prevention Strategies
• Demand Side Prevention Strategies
• Role of the Media
• Safe Migration Channels
• Crime Prevention Strategies
• Monitoring, Evaluating & Reporting on Effectiveness of Prevention
• Trafficked Persons as Victims
• Protection under the Protocol against Trafficking in Persons
• Broader International Framework
• State Responsibility for Trafficking in Persons
• Identification of Victims
• Principle of Non-Criminalization of Victims
• Criminal Justice Duties Imposed on States
• Role of the Criminal Justice System
• Current Low Levels of Prosecutions and Convictions
• Challenges to an Effective Criminal Justice Response
• Rights of Victims to Justice and Protection
• Potential Strategies to “Turn the Tide”
• State Cooperation with Civil Society
• Civil Society Actors
• The Private Sector
• Comparing SOM and TIP
• Differences and Commonalities
• Vulnerability and Continuum between SOM & TIP
• Labour Exploitation
• Forced Marriage
• Other Examples
• Children on the Move
• Protecting Smuggled and Trafficked Children
• Protection in Practice
• Children Alleged as Having Committed Smuggling or Trafficking Offences
• Basic Terms - Gender and Gender Stereotypes
• International Legal Frameworks and Definitions of TIP and SOM
• Global Overview on TIP and SOM
• Gender and Migration
• Key Debates in the Scholarship on TIP and SOM
• Gender and TIP and SOM Offenders
• Responses to TIP and SOM
• Use of Technology to Facilitate TIP and SOM
• Technology Facilitating Trafficking in Persons
• Technology in Smuggling of Migrants
• Using Technology to Prevent and Combat TIP and SOM
• Privacy and Data Concerns
• Emerging Trends
• Demand and Consumption
• Supply and Demand
• Implications of Wildlife Trafficking
• Legal and Illegal Markets
• Perpetrators and their Networks
• Locations and Activities relating to Wildlife Trafficking
• Environmental Protection & Conservation
• CITES & the International Trade in Endangered Species
• Organized Crime & Corruption
• Animal Welfare
• Criminal Justice Actors and Agencies
• Criminalization of Wildlife Trafficking
• Challenges for Law Enforcement
• Investigation Measures and Detection Methods
• Prosecution and Judiciary
• Wild Flora as the Target of Illegal Trafficking
• Purposes for which Wild Flora is Illegally Targeted
• How is it Done and Who is Involved?
• Consequences of Harms to Wild Flora
• Terminology
• Background: Communities and conservation: A history of disenfranchisement
• Incentives for communities to get involved in illegal wildlife trafficking: the cost of conservation
• Incentives to participate in illegal wildlife, logging and fishing economies
• International and regional responses that fight wildlife trafficking while supporting IPLCs
• Mechanisms for incentivizing community conservation and reducing wildlife trafficking
• Critiques of community engagement
• Other challenges posed by wildlife trafficking that affect local populations
• Global Podcast Series
• Apr. 2021: Call for Expressions of Interest: Online training for academics from francophone Africa
• Feb. 2021: Series of Seminars for Universities of Central Asia
• Dec. 2020: UNODC and TISS Conference on Access to Justice to End Violence
• Nov. 2020: Expert Workshop for University Lecturers and Trainers from the Commonwealth of Independent States
• Oct. 2020: E4J Webinar Series: Youth Empowerment through Education for Justice
• Interview: How to use E4J's tool in teaching on TIP and SOM
• E4J-Open University Online Training-of-Trainers Course
• Teaching Integrity and Ethics Modules: Survey Results
• Grants Programmes
• E4J MUN Resource Guide
• Library of Resources
• Integrity & Ethics
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E4J University Module Series: Integrity & Ethics 

Helping people learn - teaching methods and principles, fostering ethical learning environments, overview of modules and learning outcomes, module adaptation and design guidelines, table of exercises,    download full teaching guide as pdf.

• Published in September 2018.

  This teaching guide is a resource for lecturers  

The E4J University Modules on Integrity and Ethics include over 70 interactive exercises. The table below lists all these exercises and briefly describes each of them. In addition, the table indicates which of the five core learning principles discussed above (see section on " Helping people learn ") are relevant to each exercise.

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• Code of Ethics
• Code of Ethics Case Studies

ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct

Using the Code

Case studies.

The ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Practice (“the Code”) is meant to inform practice and education. It is useful as the conscience of the profession, but also for individual decision-making.

As prescribed by the Preamble of the Code, computing professionals should approach the dilemma with a holistic reading of the principles and evaluate the situation with thoughtful consideration to the circumstances. In all cases, the computing professional should defer to the public good as the paramount consideration. The analyses in the following cases highlight the intended interpretations of members of the 2018 Code task force, and should help guide computing professionals in how to apply the Code to various situations.

Case Study: Malware

Rogue Services touts its web hosting as “cheap, guaranteed uptime, no matter what.” While some of Rogue’s clients are independent web-based retailers, most are focused on malware and spam, which leverage Rogue for continuous delivery. Corrupted advertisements often link to code hosted on Rogue to exploit browser vulnerabilities to infect machines with ransomware. Rogue refuses to intervene with these services despite repeated requests.

Case Study: Medical Implants

Corazón is a medical technology startup that builds implantable heart health monitoring devices. After being approved by multiple countries’ medical device regulation agencies, Corazón quickly gained market share based on the ease of use of the app and the company’s vocal commitment to securing patients’ information. Corazón also worked with several charities to provide free or reduced access to patients living below the poverty line.

Case Study: Abusive Workplace Behavior

A new hire with the interactive technologies team, Diane became the target of team leader Max’s tirades when she committed a code update that introduced a timing glitch in a prototype shortly before a live demo. Diane approached the team’s manager, Jean, about Max’s abusive behavior. Jean agreed that the experience was unpleasant, but that was the price to pay for working in an intense, industry-leading team.

Case Study: Automated Active Response Weaponry

Q Industries is an international defense contractor specializing in autonomous vehicles. As an early pioneer in passive systems, such as bomb-defusing robots and crowd-monitoring drones, Q established itself as a vendor of choice for military and law enforcement applications. Q’s products have been deployed in a variety of settings, including conflict zones and nonviolent protests. Recently, however, Q has begun to experiment with automated active responses.

Case Study: Dark UX Patterns

The change request Stewart received was simple: replace the website’s rounded rectangle buttons with arrows, and adjust the color palette to one that mixes red and green text. But he found the prototype confusing. He suggested to his manager that this design would probably trick users into more expensive options they didn’t want. The response was that these were the changes requested by the client.

Case Study: Malicious Inputs to Content Filters

The U.S. Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) mandates that public schools and libraries employ mechanisms to block inappropriate matter on the grounds that it is deemed harmful to minors. Blocker Plus is an automated Internet content filter designed to help these institutions comply with CIPA’s requirements. During a review session, the development team reviewed a number of complaints about content being blocked inappropriately.

Guiding Members with a Framework of Ethical Conduct

Learn more about ACM’s commitment to ethical standards: the ACM Code of Ethics, Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice, and Committee on Professional Ethics (COPE), which is guiding these and other intiatives.

Ask an Ethicist

Ask an Ethicist invites ethics questions related to computing or technology. Have an interesting question, puzzle or conundrum? Submit yours via a form, and the ACM Committee on Professional Ethics (COPE) will answer a selection of them on the site.

Guidance in Addressing Real-World Ethical Challenges

The Integrity Project, created by ACM's Committee on Professional Ethics, is a series of resources designed to aid ethical decision making. It includes case studies demonstrating how the principles can be applied to specific ethical challenges, and an Ask an Ethicist advice column to help computing professionals navigate the sometimes challenging choices that can arise in the course of their work.

Supporting the Professionalism of ACM Members

The ACM Committee on Professional Ethics (COPE) is responsible for promoting ethical conduct among computing professionals by publicizing the Code of Ethics and by offering interpretations of the Code; planning and reviewing activities to educate membership in ethical decision making on issues of professional conduct; and reviewing and recommending updates to the Code of Ethics and its guidelines.

Code of Ethics

Ethical practice is essential, fundamental, and integral to student affairs and services work. An individual applying for, and holding, any certification credential agrees to adhere to the Consortium’s Code of Ethics as a Certified Student Affairs Educator. The Code of Ethics is as follows: Pursuing certification as a Certified Student Affairs Educator has three purposes. It provides an opportunity to demonstrate learning, competencies, and knowledge; it elevates the overall student affairs profession; and it benefits higher education students and institutions. As student affairs educators, in collaboration with other institutional stakeholders, our objectives include protecting the well-being of our students, fostering their individual and personal development, and teaching and learning from our colleagues to achieve these objectives. This Code of Ethics (hereafter Code) identifies ethical conduct we hope to prompt in addition to specific conduct for which certification may be denied or revoked. 

This Code is structured in three parts, beginning with ethical guiding principles, which serve as overall objectives for Certified Student Affairs Educators. The second section, ethical goals, outlines goals that serve as aspirational guideposts to motivate high-level performance in the profession. These goals pertain to contributing to the profession, higher education institutions, and students and others. The third section, ethical obligations, sets forth requirements that Certified Student Affairs Educators must meet and behavior they must avoid to achieve or preserve their certification with the Higher Education Consortium for Student Affairs Certification (the Certification Consortium), our certifying body. 

Ethical Guiding Principles 

The following guiding principles serve as overall objectives for Certified Student Affairs Educators: 

• Act with integrity and honesty as student affairs educators.  
• Communicate relevant and appropriate information while protecting confidentiality and privacy. 
• Deliver quality and excellence in our work with students. 
• Improve our competencies through continuous learning and skill development. 
• Pursue welcoming, inclusive, equitable, and just student affairs communities. 
• Respect the diversity and diverse identities of our students and colleagues. 
• Support the well-being of ourselves and others. 
• Treat people with dignity, respect, and compassion. 

Ethical Goals 

The following are aspirational goals to promote high-level performance among Certified Student Affairs Educators: 

Goals for Contributing to the Profession 

Certified Student Affairs Educators are encouraged to engage in the following types of actions to support and advance the student affairs profession: 

• Cultivate one’s knowledge and skills within student affairs.
• Develop ideas, conduct research, and share information within the profession to improve student affairs practices and the overall higher education student experience.  
• Engage honestly and responsibly in professional, personal, job reference, and career communications.  
• Exemplify and promote ethical standards in student affairs, including professional preparation and development programs.  
• Identify and intervene with appropriate resources and procedures in crisis situations. 
• Participate in higher education association activities, and make colleagues and students aware of the career and educational opportunities within the profession.  
• Promote the well-being of students, colleagues, and supervisees. 

Goals for Contributing to Our Higher Education Institutions 

Certified Student Affairs Educators are encouraged to engage in the following types of endeavors to contribute to the well-being and ongoing improvement of their institutions:

• Avoid private interests, obligations, and transactions that conflict with one’s responsibilities and work obligations.
• Be a responsible steward of the institution’s human, environmental, fiscal, and technological resources. 
• Pursue advancements in institutional programs and efforts that foster equity in the learning, social, and developmental experiences of students and communities.
• Uphold institutional policies and work to identify, address, and advocate for areas of improvement. 

Goals for Contributing to Others 

Certified Student Affairs Educators are encouraged to engage in the following types of endeavors to contribute to the well-being and ongoing development of their students, colleagues, and supervisees: 

• Communicate responsibly, whether in person, through social media, or with other technology. 
• Consult colleagues and other qualified professionals when unsure about professional practice responsibilities. 
• Engage other resources and professionals appropriately when individuals and situations call for it. 
• Ensure the arrangement of accessible, safe, and comfortable physical spaces for students and staff. 
• Honor the intellectual property of others by ensuring the accuracy of others’ work and giving proper attribution. 
• Maintain healthy and appropriate relationships with students, clients, stakeholders, and supervisees.  
• Represent professional qualifications, including education, professional affiliations, and relevant experiences, in an accurate, complete, and truthful manner.
• Respect the privacy, identity, and confidentiality of students and other stakeholders as appropriate. 
• Treat others fairly and without discrimination. 

Ethical Obligations 

Certified Student Affairs Educators must not violate the following ethical requirements in order to achieve and preserve their certification with the Certification Consortium. The requirements focus on the expectation that, in the course of their professional work and activities, Certified Student Affairs Educators are not to harm others. The Certification Consortium retains the discretion to deny, suspend, or withdraw certification of individuals who engage in the following: 

• Acts of violence, sexual misconduct, dishonesty, or gross dereliction of duties, including when such acts result in being terminated from your professional position or being convicted of a crime. 
• Harass, intimidate, or unlawfully discriminate against students, colleagues, supervisees, or others. 
• Harm others by engaging in conflicts of interest or dual or multiple relationships with students or supervisees. 
• Harm others by the unauthorized use or disclosure of personal, confidential, or sensitive information. 
• Misrepresent your credentials, professional qualifications, achievements, professional affiliations, and relevant experiences to the Certification Consortium or to others. 
• Put others at risk by working while impaired or in a condition in which you are unable to fulfill your duties. 

Certified Student Affairs Educators are expected to support the integrity of the certification and its significance with the following actions:  

• Comply with the Certification Consortium’s policies, procedures, and agreements.
• Consult and cooperate with the Certification Consortium concerning ethical matters, the collection of information related to professional ethics matters, and the established investigation and arbitration process for handling matters. 
• Maintain the security of certification exam information. 
• Make only accurate and approved use of the Certification Consortium’s intellectual property, certification marks, logos, and other copyrighted materials. 
• Promptly report personal conduct that may violate any provision of the Code of Ethics or certification program. 

Development of the Code of Ethics

In 2021, a Code of Ethics Development Committee was established to draft a code of ethics for the student affairs profession as part of certification. The Committee consisted of student affairs graduate preparation faculty and practitioners across multiple levels appointed by ACUHO-I, ACUI, AFA, ASCA, CAS (Council for Advancement of Standards in Higher Education), NACA, NASPA, and NIRSA. The Committee’s work included reviewing a synthesis of ethical statements from multiple student affairs professional associations, and both large and small group work to draft, review, and refine the final Code of Ethics. The Committee voted to approve the draft Code of Ethics, which was then advanced to the Consortium Board of Directors for review and final approval.​​​​​​ Committee members' names and affiliations are available in the website Leadership and Governance section .