what is the main disadvantage of a case study

10 Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

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A case study in academic research is a detailed and in-depth examination of a specific instance or event, generally conducted through a qualitative approach to data.

The most common case study definition that I come across is is Robert K. Yin’s (2003, p. 13) quote provided below:

“An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.”

Researchers conduct case studies for a number of reasons, such as to explore complex phenomena within their real-life context, to look at a particularly interesting instance of a situation, or to dig deeper into something of interest identified in a wider-scale project.

While case studies render extremely interesting data, they have many limitations and are not suitable for all studies. One key limitation is that a case study’s findings are not usually generalizable to broader populations because one instance cannot be used to infer trends across populations.

Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

1. in-depth analysis of complex phenomena.

Case study design allows researchers to delve deeply into intricate issues and situations.

By focusing on a specific instance or event, researchers can uncover nuanced details and layers of understanding that might be missed with other research methods, especially large-scale survey studies.

As Lee and Saunders (2017) argue,

“It allows that particular event to be studies in detail so that its unique qualities may be identified.”

This depth of analysis can provide rich insights into the underlying factors and dynamics of the studied phenomenon.

2. Holistic Understanding

Building on the above point, case studies can help us to understand a topic holistically and from multiple angles.

This means the researcher isn’t restricted to just examining a topic by using a pre-determined set of questions, as with questionnaires. Instead, researchers can use qualitative methods to delve into the many different angles, perspectives, and contextual factors related to the case study.

We can turn to Lee and Saunders (2017) again, who notes that case study researchers “develop a deep, holistic understanding of a particular phenomenon” with the intent of deeply understanding the phenomenon.

3. Examination of rare and Unusual Phenomena

We need to use case study methods when we stumble upon “rare and unusual” (Lee & Saunders, 2017) phenomena that would tend to be seen as mere outliers in population studies.

Take, for example, a child genius. A population study of all children of that child’s age would merely see this child as an outlier in the dataset, and this child may even be removed in order to predict overall trends.

So, to truly come to an understanding of this child and get insights into the environmental conditions that led to this child’s remarkable cognitive development, we need to do an in-depth study of this child specifically – so, we’d use a case study.

4. Helps Reveal the Experiences of Marginalzied Groups

Just as rare and unsual cases can be overlooked in population studies, so too can the experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of marginalized groups.

As Lee and Saunders (2017) argue, “case studies are also extremely useful in helping the expression of the voices of people whose interests are often ignored.”

Take, for example, the experiences of minority populations as they navigate healthcare systems. This was for many years a “hidden” phenomenon, not examined by researchers. It took case study designs to truly reveal this phenomenon, which helped to raise practitioners’ awareness of the importance of cultural sensitivity in medicine.

5. Ideal in Situations where Researchers cannot Control the Variables

Experimental designs – where a study takes place in a lab or controlled environment – are excellent for determining cause and effect . But not all studies can take place in controlled environments (Tetnowski, 2015).

When we’re out in the field doing observational studies or similar fieldwork, we don’t have the freedom to isolate dependent and independent variables. We need to use alternate methods.

Case studies are ideal in such situations.

A case study design will allow researchers to deeply immerse themselves in a setting (potentially combining it with methods such as ethnography or researcher observation) in order to see how phenomena take place in real-life settings.

6. Supports the generation of new theories or hypotheses

While large-scale quantitative studies such as cross-sectional designs and population surveys are excellent at testing theories and hypotheses on a large scale, they need a hypothesis to start off with!

This is where case studies – in the form of grounded research – come in. Often, a case study doesn’t start with a hypothesis. Instead, it ends with a hypothesis based upon the findings within a singular setting.

The deep analysis allows for hypotheses to emerge, which can then be taken to larger-scale studies in order to conduct further, more generalizable, testing of the hypothesis or theory.

7. Reveals the Unexpected

When a largescale quantitative research project has a clear hypothesis that it will test, it often becomes very rigid and has tunnel-vision on just exploring the hypothesis.

Of course, a structured scientific examination of the effects of specific interventions targeted at specific variables is extermely valuable.

But narrowly-focused studies often fail to shine a spotlight on unexpected and emergent data. Here, case studies come in very useful. Oftentimes, researchers set their eyes on a phenomenon and, when examining it closely with case studies, identify data and come to conclusions that are unprecedented, unforeseen, and outright surprising.

As Lars Meier (2009, p. 975) marvels, “where else can we become a part of foreign social worlds and have the chance to become aware of the unexpected?”

Disadvantages

1. not usually generalizable.

Case studies are not generalizable because they tend not to look at a broad enough corpus of data to be able to infer that there is a trend across a population.

As Yang (2022) argues, “by definition, case studies can make no claims to be typical.”

Case studies focus on one specific instance of a phenomenon. They explore the context, nuances, and situational factors that have come to bear on the case study. This is really useful for bringing to light important, new, and surprising information, as I’ve already covered.

But , it’s not often useful for generating data that has validity beyond the specific case study being examined.

2. Subjectivity in interpretation

Case studies usually (but not always) use qualitative data which helps to get deep into a topic and explain it in human terms, finding insights unattainable by quantitative data.

But qualitative data in case studies relies heavily on researcher interpretation. While researchers can be trained and work hard to focus on minimizing subjectivity (through methods like triangulation), it often emerges – some might argue it’s innevitable in qualitative studies.

So, a criticism of case studies could be that they’re more prone to subjectivity – and researchers need to take strides to address this in their studies.

3. Difficulty in replicating results

Case study research is often non-replicable because the study takes place in complex real-world settings where variables are not controlled.

So, when returning to a setting to re-do or attempt to replicate a study, we often find that the variables have changed to such an extent that replication is difficult. Furthermore, new researchers (with new subjective eyes) may catch things that the other readers overlooked.

Replication is even harder when researchers attempt to replicate a case study design in a new setting or with different participants.

Comprehension Quiz for Students

Question 1: What benefit do case studies offer when exploring the experiences of marginalized groups?

a) They provide generalizable data. b) They help express the voices of often-ignored individuals. c) They control all variables for the study. d) They always start with a clear hypothesis.

Question 2: Why might case studies be considered ideal for situations where researchers cannot control all variables?

a) They provide a structured scientific examination. b) They allow for generalizability across populations. c) They focus on one specific instance of a phenomenon. d) They allow for deep immersion in real-life settings.

Question 3: What is a primary disadvantage of case studies in terms of data applicability?

a) They always focus on the unexpected. b) They are not usually generalizable. c) They support the generation of new theories. d) They provide a holistic understanding.

Question 4: Why might case studies be considered more prone to subjectivity?

a) They always use quantitative data. b) They heavily rely on researcher interpretation, especially with qualitative data. c) They are always replicable. d) They look at a broad corpus of data.

Question 5: In what situations are experimental designs, such as those conducted in labs, most valuable?

a) When there’s a need to study rare and unusual phenomena. b) When a holistic understanding is required. c) When determining cause-and-effect relationships. d) When the study focuses on marginalized groups.

Question 6: Why is replication challenging in case study research?

a) Because they always use qualitative data. b) Because they tend to focus on a broad corpus of data. c) Due to the changing variables in complex real-world settings. d) Because they always start with a hypothesis.

Lee, B., & Saunders, M. N. K. (2017). Conducting Case Study Research for Business and Management Students. SAGE Publications.

Meir, L. (2009). Feasting on the Benefits of Case Study Research. In Mills, A. J., Wiebe, E., & Durepos, G. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Case Study Research (Vol. 2). London: SAGE Publications.

Tetnowski, J. (2015). Qualitative case study research design.  Perspectives on fluency and fluency disorders ,  25 (1), 39-45. ( Source )

Yang, S. L. (2022). The War on Corruption in China: Local Reform and Innovation . Taylor & Francis.

Yin, R. (2003). Case Study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Case Study Method – 18 Advantages and Disadvantages

The case study method uses investigatory research as a way to collect data about specific demographics. This approach can apply to individuals, businesses, groups, or events. Each participant receives an equal amount of participation, offering information for collection that can then find new insights into specific trends, ideas, of hypotheses.

Interviews and research observation are the two standard methods of data collection used when following the case study method.

Researchers initially developed the case study method to develop and support hypotheses in clinical medicine. The benefits found in these efforts led the approach to transition to other industries, allowing for the examination of results through proposed decisions, processes, or outcomes. Its unique approach to information makes it possible for others to glean specific points of wisdom that encourage growth.

Several case study method advantages and disadvantages can appear when researchers take this approach.

List of the Advantages of the Case Study Method

1. It requires an intensive study of a specific unit. Researchers must document verifiable data from direct observations when using the case study method. This work offers information about the input processes that go into the hypothesis under consideration. A casual approach to data-gathering work is not effective if a definitive outcome is desired. Each behavior, choice, or comment is a critical component that can verify or dispute the ideas being considered.

Intensive programs can require a significant amount of work for researchers, but it can also promote an improvement in the data collected. That means a hypothesis can receive immediate verification in some situations.

2. No sampling is required when following the case study method. This research method studies social units in their entire perspective instead of pulling individual data points out to analyze them. That means there is no sampling work required when using the case study method. The hypothesis under consideration receives support because it works to turn opinions into facts, verifying or denying the proposals that outside observers can use in the future.

Although researchers might pay attention to specific incidents or outcomes based on generalized behaviors or ideas, the study itself won’t sample those situations. It takes a look at the “bigger vision” instead.

3. This method offers a continuous analysis of the facts. The case study method will look at the facts continuously for the social group being studied by researchers. That means there aren’t interruptions in the process that could limit the validity of the data being collected through this work. This advantage reduces the need to use assumptions when drawing conclusions from the information, adding validity to the outcome of the study over time. That means the outcome becomes relevant to both sides of the equation as it can prove specific suppositions or invalidate a hypothesis under consideration.

This advantage can lead to inefficiencies because of the amount of data being studied by researchers. It is up to the individuals involved in the process to sort out what is useful and meaningful and what is not.

4. It is a useful approach to take when formulating a hypothesis. Researchers will use the case study method advantages to verify a hypothesis under consideration. It is not unusual for the collected data to lead people toward the formulation of new ideas after completing this work. This process encourages further study because it allows concepts to evolve as people do in social or physical environments. That means a complete data set can be gathered based on the skills of the researcher and the honesty of the individuals involved in the study itself.

Although this approach won’t develop a societal-level evaluation of a hypothesis, it can look at how specific groups will react in various circumstances. That information can lead to a better decision-making process in the future for everyone involved.

5. It provides an increase in knowledge. The case study method provides everyone with analytical power to increase knowledge. This advantage is possible because it uses a variety of methodologies to collect information while evaluating a hypothesis. Researchers prefer to use direct observation and interviews to complete their work, but it can also advantage through the use of questionnaires. Participants might need to fill out a journal or diary about their experiences that can be used to study behaviors or choices.

Some researchers incorporate memory tests and experimental tasks to determine how social groups will interact or respond in specific situations. All of this data then works to verify the possibilities that a hypothesis proposes.

6. The case study method allows for comparisons. The human experience is one that is built on individual observations from group situations. Specific demographics might think, act, or respond in particular ways to stimuli, but each person in that group will also contribute a small part to the whole. You could say that people are sponges that collect data from one another every day to create individual outcomes.

The case study method allows researchers to take the information from each demographic for comparison purposes. This information can then lead to proposals that support a hypothesis or lead to its disruption.

7. Data generalization is possible using the case study method. The case study method provides a foundation for data generalization, allowing researches to illustrate their statistical findings in meaningful ways. It puts the information into a usable format that almost anyone can use if they have the need to evaluate the hypothesis under consideration. This process makes it easier to discover unusual features, unique outcomes, or find conclusions that wouldn’t be available without this method. It does an excellent job of identifying specific concepts that relate to the proposed ideas that researchers were verifying through their work.

Generalization does not apply to a larger population group with the case study method. What researchers can do with this information is to suggest a predictable outcome when similar groups are placed in an equal situation.

8. It offers a comprehensive approach to research. Nothing gets ignored when using the case study method to collect information. Every person, place, or thing involved in the research receives the complete attention of those seeking data. The interactions are equal, which means the data is comprehensive and directly reflective of the group being observed.

This advantage means that there are fewer outliers to worry about when researching an idea, leading to a higher level of accuracy in the conclusions drawn by the researchers.

9. The identification of deviant cases is possible with this method. The case study method of research makes it easier to identify deviant cases that occur in each social group. These incidents are units (people) that behave in ways that go against the hypothesis under consideration. Instead of ignoring them like other options do when collecting data, this approach incorporates the “rogue” behavior to understand why it exists in the first place.

This advantage makes the eventual data and conclusions gathered more reliable because it incorporates the “alternative opinion” that exists. One might say that the case study method places as much emphasis on the yin as it does the yang so that the whole picture becomes available to the outside observer.

10. Questionnaire development is possible with the case study method. Interviews and direct observation are the preferred methods of implementing the case study method because it is cheap and done remotely. The information gathered by researchers can also lead to farming questionnaires that can farm additional data from those being studied. When all of the data resources come together, it is easier to formulate a conclusion that accurately reflects the demographics.

Some people in the case study method may try to manipulate the results for personal reasons, but this advantage makes it possible to identify this information readily. Then researchers can look into the thinking that goes into the dishonest behaviors observed.

List of the Disadvantages of the Case Study Method

1. The case study method offers limited representation. The usefulness of the case study method is limited to a specific group of representatives. Researchers are looking at a specific demographic when using this option. That means it is impossible to create any generalization that applies to the rest of society, an organization, or a larger community with this work. The findings can only apply to other groups caught in similar circumstances with the same experiences.

It is useful to use the case study method when attempting to discover the specific reasons why some people behave in a specific way. If researchers need something more generalized, then a different method must be used.

2. No classification is possible with the case study method. This disadvantage is also due to the sample size in the case study method. No classification is possible because researchers are studying such a small unit, group, or demographic. It can be an inefficient process since the skills of the researcher help to determine the quality of the data being collected to verify the validity of a hypothesis. Some participants may be unwilling to answer or participate, while others might try to guess at the outcome to support it.

Researchers can get trapped in a place where they explore more tangents than the actual hypothesis with this option. Classification can occur within the units being studied, but this data cannot extrapolate to other demographics.

3. The case study method still offers the possibility of errors. Each person has an unconscious bias that influences their behaviors and choices. The case study method can find outliers that oppose a hypothesis fairly easily thanks to its emphasis on finding facts, but it is up to the researchers to determine what information qualifies for this designation. If the results from the case study method are surprising or go against the opinion of participating individuals, then there is still the possibility that the information will not be 100% accurate.

Researchers must have controls in place that dictate how data gathering work occurs. Without this limitation in place, the results of the study cannot be guaranteed because of the presence of bias.

4. It is a subjective method to use for research. Although the purpose of the case study method of research is to gather facts, the foundation of what gets gathered is still based on opinion. It uses the subjective method instead of the objective one when evaluating data, which means there can be another layer of errors in the information to consider.

Imagine that a researcher interprets someone’s response as “angry” when performing direct observation, but the individual was feeling “shame” because of a decision they made. The difference between those two emotions is profound, and it could lead to information disruptions that could be problematic to the eventual work of hypothesis verification.

5. The processes required by the case study method are not useful for everyone. The case study method uses a person’s memories, explanations, and records from photographs and diaries to identify interactions on influences on psychological processes. People are given the chance to describe what happens in the world around them as a way for researchers to gather data. This process can be an advantage in some industries, but it can also be a worthless approach to some groups.

If the social group under study doesn’t have the information, knowledge, or wisdom to provide meaningful data, then the processes are no longer useful. Researchers must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the case study method before starting their work to determine if the possibility of value exists. If it does not, then a different method may be necessary.

6. It is possible for bias to form in the data. It’s not just an unconscious bias that can form in the data when using the case study method. The narrow study approach can lead to outright discrimination in the data. Researchers can decide to ignore outliers or any other information that doesn’t support their hypothesis when using this method. The subjective nature of this approach makes it difficult to challenge the conclusions that get drawn from this work, and the limited pool of units (people) means that duplication is almost impossible.

That means unethical people can manipulate the results gathered by the case study method to their own advantage without much accountability in the process.

7. This method has no fixed limits to it. This method of research is highly dependent on situational circumstances rather than overarching societal or corporate truths. That means the researcher has no fixed limits of investigation. Even when controls are in place to limit bias or recommend specific activities, the case study method has enough flexibility built into its structures to allow for additional exploration. That means it is possible for this work to continue indefinitely, gathering data that never becomes useful.

Scientists began to track the health of 268 sophomores at Harvard in 1938. The Great Depression was in its final years at that point, so the study hoped to reveal clues that lead to happy and healthy lives. It continues still today, now incorporating the children of the original participants, providing over 80 years of information to sort through for conclusions.

8. The case study method is time-consuming and expensive. The case study method can be affordable in some situations, but the lack of fixed limits and the ability to pursue tangents can make it a costly process in most situations. It takes time to gather the data in the first place, and then researchers must interpret the information received so that they can use it for hypothesis evaluation. There are other methods of data collection that can be less expensive and provide results faster.

That doesn’t mean the case study method is useless. The individualization of results can help the decision-making process advance in a variety of industries successfully. It just takes more time to reach the appropriate conclusion, and that might be a resource that isn’t available.

The advantages and disadvantages of the case study method suggest that the helpfulness of this research option depends on the specific hypothesis under consideration. When researchers have the correct skills and mindset to gather data accurately, then it can lead to supportive data that can verify ideas with tremendous accuracy.

This research method can also be used unethically to produce specific results that can be difficult to challenge.

When bias enters into the structure of the case study method, the processes become inefficient, inaccurate, and harmful to the hypothesis. That’s why great care must be taken when designing a study with this approach. It might be a labor-intensive way to develop conclusions, but the outcomes are often worth the investments needed.

Home » Pros and Cons » 12 Case Study Method Advantages and Disadvantages

12 Case Study Method Advantages and Disadvantages

A case study is an investigation into an individual circumstance. The investigation may be of a single person, business, event, or group. The investigation involves collecting in-depth data about the individual entity through the use of several collection methods. Interviews and observation are two of the most common forms of data collection used.

The case study method was originally developed in the field of clinical medicine. It has expanded since to other industries to examine key results, either positive or negative, that were received through a specific set of decisions. This allows for the topic to be researched with great detail, allowing others to glean knowledge from the information presented.

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of using the case study method.

List of the Advantages of the Case Study Method

1. it turns client observations into useable data..

Case studies offer verifiable data from direct observations of the individual entity involved. These observations provide information about input processes. It can show the path taken which led to specific results being generated. Those observations make it possible for others, in similar circumstances, to potentially replicate the results discovered by the case study method.

2. It turns opinion into fact.

Case studies provide facts to study because you’re looking at data which was generated in real-time. It is a way for researchers to turn their opinions into information that can be verified as fact because there is a proven path of positive or negative development. Singling out a specific incident also provides in-depth details about the path of development, which gives it extra credibility to the outside observer.

3. It is relevant to all parties involved.

Case studies that are chosen well will be relevant to everyone who is participating in the process. Because there is such a high level of relevance involved, researchers are able to stay actively engaged in the data collection process. Participants are able to further their knowledge growth because there is interest in the outcome of the case study. Most importantly, the case study method essentially forces people to make a decision about the question being studied, then defend their position through the use of facts.

4. It uses a number of different research methodologies.

The case study method involves more than just interviews and direct observation. Case histories from a records database can be used with this method. Questionnaires can be distributed to participants in the entity being studies. Individuals who have kept diaries and journals about the entity being studied can be included. Even certain experimental tasks, such as a memory test, can be part of this research process.

5. It can be done remotely.

Researchers do not need to be present at a specific location or facility to utilize the case study method. Research can be obtained over the phone, through email, and other forms of remote communication. Even interviews can be conducted over the phone. That means this method is good for formative research that is exploratory in nature, even if it must be completed from a remote location.

6. It is inexpensive.

Compared to other methods of research, the case study method is rather inexpensive. The costs associated with this method involve accessing data, which can often be done for free. Even when there are in-person interviews or other on-site duties involved, the costs of reviewing the data are minimal.

7. It is very accessible to readers.

The case study method puts data into a usable format for those who read the data and note its outcome. Although there may be perspectives of the researcher included in the outcome, the goal of this method is to help the reader be able to identify specific concepts to which they also relate. That allows them to discover unusual features within the data, examine outliers that may be present, or draw conclusions from their own experiences.

List of the Disadvantages of the Case Study Method

1. it can have influence factors within the data..

Every person has their own unconscious bias. Although the case study method is designed to limit the influence of this bias by collecting fact-based data, it is the collector of the data who gets to define what is a “fact” and what is not. That means the real-time data being collected may be based on the results the researcher wants to see from the entity instead. By controlling how facts are collected, a research can control the results this method generates.

2. It takes longer to analyze the data.

The information collection process through the case study method takes much longer to collect than other research options. That is because there is an enormous amount of data which must be sifted through. It’s not just the researchers who can influence the outcome in this type of research method. Participants can also influence outcomes by given inaccurate or incomplete answers to questions they are asked. Researchers must verify the information presented to ensure its accuracy, and that takes time to complete.

3. It can be an inefficient process.

Case study methods require the participation of the individuals or entities involved for it to be a successful process. That means the skills of the researcher will help to determine the quality of information that is being received. Some participants may be quiet, unwilling to answer even basic questions about what is being studied. Others may be overly talkative, exploring tangents which have nothing to do with the case study at all. If researchers are unsure of how to manage this process, then incomplete data is often collected.

4. It requires a small sample size to be effective.

The case study method requires a small sample size for it to yield an effective amount of data to be analyzed. If there are different demographics involved with the entity, or there are different needs which must be examined, then the case study method becomes very inefficient.

5. It is a labor-intensive method of data collection.

The case study method requires researchers to have a high level of language skills to be successful with data collection. Researchers must be personally involved in every aspect of collecting the data as well. From reviewing files or entries personally to conducting personal interviews, the concepts and themes of this process are heavily reliant on the amount of work each researcher is willing to put into things.

These case study method advantages and disadvantages offer a look at the effectiveness of this research option. With the right skill set, it can be used as an effective tool to gather rich, detailed information about specific entities. Without the right skill set, the case study method becomes inefficient and inaccurate.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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The Advantages and Limitations of Single Case Study Analysis

As Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman have recently noted, qualitative research methods presently enjoy “an almost unprecedented popularity and vitality… in the international relations sub-field”, such that they are now “indisputably prominent, if not pre-eminent” (2010: 499). This is, they suggest, due in no small part to the considerable advantages that case study methods in particular have to offer in studying the “complex and relatively unstructured and infrequent phenomena that lie at the heart of the subfield” (Bennett and Elman, 2007: 171). Using selected examples from within the International Relations literature[1], this paper aims to provide a brief overview of the main principles and distinctive advantages and limitations of single case study analysis. Divided into three inter-related sections, the paper therefore begins by first identifying the underlying principles that serve to constitute the case study as a particular research strategy, noting the somewhat contested nature of the approach in ontological, epistemological, and methodological terms. The second part then looks to the principal single case study types and their associated advantages, including those from within the recent ‘third generation’ of qualitative International Relations (IR) research. The final section of the paper then discusses the most commonly articulated limitations of single case studies; while accepting their susceptibility to criticism, it is however suggested that such weaknesses are somewhat exaggerated. The paper concludes that single case study analysis has a great deal to offer as a means of both understanding and explaining contemporary international relations.

The term ‘case study’, John Gerring has suggested, is “a definitional morass… Evidently, researchers have many different things in mind when they talk about case study research” (2006a: 17). It is possible, however, to distil some of the more commonly-agreed principles. One of the most prominent advocates of case study research, Robert Yin (2009: 14) defines it as “an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”. What this definition usefully captures is that case studies are intended – unlike more superficial and generalising methods – to provide a level of detail and understanding, similar to the ethnographer Clifford Geertz’s (1973) notion of ‘thick description’, that allows for the thorough analysis of the complex and particularistic nature of distinct phenomena. Another frequently cited proponent of the approach, Robert Stake, notes that as a form of research the case study “is defined by interest in an individual case, not by the methods of inquiry used”, and that “the object of study is a specific, unique, bounded system” (2008: 443, 445). As such, three key points can be derived from this – respectively concerning issues of ontology, epistemology, and methodology – that are central to the principles of single case study research.

First, the vital notion of ‘boundedness’ when it comes to the particular unit of analysis means that defining principles should incorporate both the synchronic (spatial) and diachronic (temporal) elements of any so-called ‘case’. As Gerring puts it, a case study should be “an intensive study of a single unit… a spatially bounded phenomenon – e.g. a nation-state, revolution, political party, election, or person – observed at a single point in time or over some delimited period of time” (2004: 342). It is important to note, however, that – whereas Gerring refers to a single unit of analysis – it may be that attention also necessarily be given to particular sub-units. This points to the important difference between what Yin refers to as an ‘holistic’ case design, with a single unit of analysis, and an ’embedded’ case design with multiple units of analysis (Yin, 2009: 50-52). The former, for example, would examine only the overall nature of an international organization, whereas the latter would also look to specific departments, programmes, or policies etc.

Secondly, as Tim May notes of the case study approach, “even the most fervent advocates acknowledge that the term has entered into understandings with little specification or discussion of purpose and process” (2011: 220). One of the principal reasons for this, he argues, is the relationship between the use of case studies in social research and the differing epistemological traditions – positivist, interpretivist, and others – within which it has been utilised. Philosophy of science concerns are obviously a complex issue, and beyond the scope of much of this paper. That said, the issue of how it is that we know what we know – of whether or not a single independent reality exists of which we as researchers can seek to provide explanation – does lead us to an important distinction to be made between so-called idiographic and nomothetic case studies (Gerring, 2006b). The former refers to those which purport to explain only a single case, are concerned with particularisation, and hence are typically (although not exclusively) associated with more interpretivist approaches. The latter are those focused studies that reflect upon a larger population and are more concerned with generalisation, as is often so with more positivist approaches[2]. The importance of this distinction, and its relation to the advantages and limitations of single case study analysis, is returned to below.

Thirdly, in methodological terms, given that the case study has often been seen as more of an interpretivist and idiographic tool, it has also been associated with a distinctly qualitative approach (Bryman, 2009: 67-68). However, as Yin notes, case studies can – like all forms of social science research – be exploratory, descriptive, and/or explanatory in nature. It is “a common misconception”, he notes, “that the various research methods should be arrayed hierarchically… many social scientists still deeply believe that case studies are only appropriate for the exploratory phase of an investigation” (Yin, 2009: 6). If case studies can reliably perform any or all three of these roles – and given that their in-depth approach may also require multiple sources of data and the within-case triangulation of methods – then it becomes readily apparent that they should not be limited to only one research paradigm. Exploratory and descriptive studies usually tend toward the qualitative and inductive, whereas explanatory studies are more often quantitative and deductive (David and Sutton, 2011: 165-166). As such, the association of case study analysis with a qualitative approach is a “methodological affinity, not a definitional requirement” (Gerring, 2006a: 36). It is perhaps better to think of case studies as transparadigmatic; it is mistaken to assume single case study analysis to adhere exclusively to a qualitative methodology (or an interpretivist epistemology) even if it – or rather, practitioners of it – may be so inclined. By extension, this also implies that single case study analysis therefore remains an option for a multitude of IR theories and issue areas; it is how this can be put to researchers’ advantage that is the subject of the next section.

Having elucidated the defining principles of the single case study approach, the paper now turns to an overview of its main benefits. As noted above, a lack of consensus still exists within the wider social science literature on the principles and purposes – and by extension the advantages and limitations – of case study research. Given that this paper is directed towards the particular sub-field of International Relations, it suggests Bennett and Elman’s (2010) more discipline-specific understanding of contemporary case study methods as an analytical framework. It begins however, by discussing Harry Eckstein’s seminal (1975) contribution to the potential advantages of the case study approach within the wider social sciences.

Eckstein proposed a taxonomy which usefully identified what he considered to be the five most relevant types of case study. Firstly were so-called configurative-idiographic studies, distinctly interpretivist in orientation and predicated on the assumption that “one cannot attain prediction and control in the natural science sense, but only understanding ( verstehen )… subjective values and modes of cognition are crucial” (1975: 132). Eckstein’s own sceptical view was that any interpreter ‘simply’ considers a body of observations that are not self-explanatory and “without hard rules of interpretation, may discern in them any number of patterns that are more or less equally plausible” (1975: 134). Those of a more post-modernist bent, of course – sharing an “incredulity towards meta-narratives”, in Lyotard’s (1994: xxiv) evocative phrase – would instead suggest that this more free-form approach actually be advantageous in delving into the subtleties and particularities of individual cases.

Eckstein’s four other types of case study, meanwhile, promote a more nomothetic (and positivist) usage. As described, disciplined-configurative studies were essentially about the use of pre-existing general theories, with a case acting “passively, in the main, as a receptacle for putting theories to work” (Eckstein, 1975: 136). As opposed to the opportunity this presented primarily for theory application, Eckstein identified heuristic case studies as explicit theoretical stimulants – thus having instead the intended advantage of theory-building. So-called p lausibility probes entailed preliminary attempts to determine whether initial hypotheses should be considered sound enough to warrant more rigorous and extensive testing. Finally, and perhaps most notably, Eckstein then outlined the idea of crucial case studies , within which he also included the idea of ‘most-likely’ and ‘least-likely’ cases; the essential characteristic of crucial cases being their specific theory-testing function.

Whilst Eckstein’s was an early contribution to refining the case study approach, Yin’s (2009: 47-52) more recent delineation of possible single case designs similarly assigns them roles in the applying, testing, or building of theory, as well as in the study of unique cases[3]. As a subset of the latter, however, Jack Levy (2008) notes that the advantages of idiographic cases are actually twofold. Firstly, as inductive/descriptive cases – akin to Eckstein’s configurative-idiographic cases – whereby they are highly descriptive, lacking in an explicit theoretical framework and therefore taking the form of “total history”. Secondly, they can operate as theory-guided case studies, but ones that seek only to explain or interpret a single historical episode rather than generalise beyond the case. Not only does this therefore incorporate ‘single-outcome’ studies concerned with establishing causal inference (Gerring, 2006b), it also provides room for the more postmodern approaches within IR theory, such as discourse analysis, that may have developed a distinct methodology but do not seek traditional social scientific forms of explanation.

Applying specifically to the state of the field in contemporary IR, Bennett and Elman identify a ‘third generation’ of mainstream qualitative scholars – rooted in a pragmatic scientific realist epistemology and advocating a pluralistic approach to methodology – that have, over the last fifteen years, “revised or added to essentially every aspect of traditional case study research methods” (2010: 502). They identify ‘process tracing’ as having emerged from this as a central method of within-case analysis. As Bennett and Checkel observe, this carries the advantage of offering a methodologically rigorous “analysis of evidence on processes, sequences, and conjunctures of events within a case, for the purposes of either developing or testing hypotheses about causal mechanisms that might causally explain the case” (2012: 10).

Harnessing various methods, process tracing may entail the inductive use of evidence from within a case to develop explanatory hypotheses, and deductive examination of the observable implications of hypothesised causal mechanisms to test their explanatory capability[4]. It involves providing not only a coherent explanation of the key sequential steps in a hypothesised process, but also sensitivity to alternative explanations as well as potential biases in the available evidence (Bennett and Elman 2010: 503-504). John Owen (1994), for example, demonstrates the advantages of process tracing in analysing whether the causal factors underpinning democratic peace theory are – as liberalism suggests – not epiphenomenal, but variously normative, institutional, or some given combination of the two or other unexplained mechanism inherent to liberal states. Within-case process tracing has also been identified as advantageous in addressing the complexity of path-dependent explanations and critical junctures – as for example with the development of political regime types – and their constituent elements of causal possibility, contingency, closure, and constraint (Bennett and Elman, 2006b).

Bennett and Elman (2010: 505-506) also identify the advantages of single case studies that are implicitly comparative: deviant, most-likely, least-likely, and crucial cases. Of these, so-called deviant cases are those whose outcome does not fit with prior theoretical expectations or wider empirical patterns – again, the use of inductive process tracing has the advantage of potentially generating new hypotheses from these, either particular to that individual case or potentially generalisable to a broader population. A classic example here is that of post-independence India as an outlier to the standard modernisation theory of democratisation, which holds that higher levels of socio-economic development are typically required for the transition to, and consolidation of, democratic rule (Lipset, 1959; Diamond, 1992). Absent these factors, MacMillan’s single case study analysis (2008) suggests the particularistic importance of the British colonial heritage, the ideology and leadership of the Indian National Congress, and the size and heterogeneity of the federal state.

Most-likely cases, as per Eckstein above, are those in which a theory is to be considered likely to provide a good explanation if it is to have any application at all, whereas least-likely cases are ‘tough test’ ones in which the posited theory is unlikely to provide good explanation (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 505). Levy (2008) neatly refers to the inferential logic of the least-likely case as the ‘Sinatra inference’ – if a theory can make it here, it can make it anywhere. Conversely, if a theory cannot pass a most-likely case, it is seriously impugned. Single case analysis can therefore be valuable for the testing of theoretical propositions, provided that predictions are relatively precise and measurement error is low (Levy, 2008: 12-13). As Gerring rightly observes of this potential for falsification:

“a positivist orientation toward the work of social science militates toward a greater appreciation of the case study format, not a denigration of that format, as is usually supposed” (Gerring, 2007: 247, emphasis added).

In summary, the various forms of single case study analysis can – through the application of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative research methods – provide a nuanced, empirically-rich, holistic account of specific phenomena. This may be particularly appropriate for those phenomena that are simply less amenable to more superficial measures and tests (or indeed any substantive form of quantification) as well as those for which our reasons for understanding and/or explaining them are irreducibly subjective – as, for example, with many of the normative and ethical issues associated with the practice of international relations. From various epistemological and analytical standpoints, single case study analysis can incorporate both idiographic sui generis cases and, where the potential for generalisation may exist, nomothetic case studies suitable for the testing and building of causal hypotheses. Finally, it should not be ignored that a signal advantage of the case study – with particular relevance to international relations – also exists at a more practical rather than theoretical level. This is, as Eckstein noted, “that it is economical for all resources: money, manpower, time, effort… especially important, of course, if studies are inherently costly, as they are if units are complex collective individuals ” (1975: 149-150, emphasis added).

Limitations

Single case study analysis has, however, been subject to a number of criticisms, the most common of which concern the inter-related issues of methodological rigour, researcher subjectivity, and external validity. With regard to the first point, the prototypical view here is that of Zeev Maoz (2002: 164-165), who suggests that “the use of the case study absolves the author from any kind of methodological considerations. Case studies have become in many cases a synonym for freeform research where anything goes”. The absence of systematic procedures for case study research is something that Yin (2009: 14-15) sees as traditionally the greatest concern due to a relative absence of methodological guidelines. As the previous section suggests, this critique seems somewhat unfair; many contemporary case study practitioners – and representing various strands of IR theory – have increasingly sought to clarify and develop their methodological techniques and epistemological grounding (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 499-500).

A second issue, again also incorporating issues of construct validity, concerns that of the reliability and replicability of various forms of single case study analysis. This is usually tied to a broader critique of qualitative research methods as a whole. However, whereas the latter obviously tend toward an explicitly-acknowledged interpretive basis for meanings, reasons, and understandings:

“quantitative measures appear objective, but only so long as we don’t ask questions about where and how the data were produced… pure objectivity is not a meaningful concept if the goal is to measure intangibles [as] these concepts only exist because we can interpret them” (Berg and Lune, 2010: 340).

The question of researcher subjectivity is a valid one, and it may be intended only as a methodological critique of what are obviously less formalised and researcher-independent methods (Verschuren, 2003). Owen (1994) and Layne’s (1994) contradictory process tracing results of interdemocratic war-avoidance during the Anglo-American crisis of 1861 to 1863 – from liberal and realist standpoints respectively – are a useful example. However, it does also rest on certain assumptions that can raise deeper and potentially irreconcilable ontological and epistemological issues. There are, regardless, plenty such as Bent Flyvbjerg (2006: 237) who suggest that the case study contains no greater bias toward verification than other methods of inquiry, and that “on the contrary, experience indicates that the case study contains a greater bias toward falsification of preconceived notions than toward verification”.

The third and arguably most prominent critique of single case study analysis is the issue of external validity or generalisability. How is it that one case can reliably offer anything beyond the particular? “We always do better (or, in the extreme, no worse) with more observation as the basis of our generalization”, as King et al write; “in all social science research and all prediction, it is important that we be as explicit as possible about the degree of uncertainty that accompanies out prediction” (1994: 212). This is an unavoidably valid criticism. It may be that theories which pass a single crucial case study test, for example, require rare antecedent conditions and therefore actually have little explanatory range. These conditions may emerge more clearly, as Van Evera (1997: 51-54) notes, from large-N studies in which cases that lack them present themselves as outliers exhibiting a theory’s cause but without its predicted outcome. As with the case of Indian democratisation above, it would logically be preferable to conduct large-N analysis beforehand to identify that state’s non-representative nature in relation to the broader population.

There are, however, three important qualifiers to the argument about generalisation that deserve particular mention here. The first is that with regard to an idiographic single-outcome case study, as Eckstein notes, the criticism is “mitigated by the fact that its capability to do so [is] never claimed by its exponents; in fact it is often explicitly repudiated” (1975: 134). Criticism of generalisability is of little relevance when the intention is one of particularisation. A second qualifier relates to the difference between statistical and analytical generalisation; single case studies are clearly less appropriate for the former but arguably retain significant utility for the latter – the difference also between explanatory and exploratory, or theory-testing and theory-building, as discussed above. As Gerring puts it, “theory confirmation/disconfirmation is not the case study’s strong suit” (2004: 350). A third qualification relates to the issue of case selection. As Seawright and Gerring (2008) note, the generalisability of case studies can be increased by the strategic selection of cases. Representative or random samples may not be the most appropriate, given that they may not provide the richest insight (or indeed, that a random and unknown deviant case may appear). Instead, and properly used , atypical or extreme cases “often reveal more information because they activate more actors… and more basic mechanisms in the situation studied” (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Of course, this also points to the very serious limitation, as hinted at with the case of India above, that poor case selection may alternatively lead to overgeneralisation and/or grievous misunderstandings of the relationship between variables or processes (Bennett and Elman, 2006a: 460-463).

As Tim May (2011: 226) notes, “the goal for many proponents of case studies […] is to overcome dichotomies between generalizing and particularizing, quantitative and qualitative, deductive and inductive techniques”. Research aims should drive methodological choices, rather than narrow and dogmatic preconceived approaches. As demonstrated above, there are various advantages to both idiographic and nomothetic single case study analyses – notably the empirically-rich, context-specific, holistic accounts that they have to offer, and their contribution to theory-building and, to a lesser extent, that of theory-testing. Furthermore, while they do possess clear limitations, any research method involves necessary trade-offs; the inherent weaknesses of any one method, however, can potentially be offset by situating them within a broader, pluralistic mixed-method research strategy. Whether or not single case studies are used in this fashion, they clearly have a great deal to offer.

References 

Bennett, A. and Checkel, J. T. (2012) ‘Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practice’, Simons Papers in Security and Development, No. 21/2012, School for International Studies, Simon Fraser University: Vancouver.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006a) ‘Qualitative Research: Recent Developments in Case Study Methods’, Annual Review of Political Science , 9, 455-476.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006b) ‘Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods: The Example of Path Dependence’, Political Analysis , 14, 3, 250-267.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2007) ‘Case Study Methods in the International Relations Subfield’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 2, 170-195.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2010) Case Study Methods. In C. Reus-Smit and D. Snidal (eds) The Oxford Handbook of International Relations . Oxford University Press: Oxford. Ch. 29.

Berg, B. and Lune, H. (2012) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences . Pearson: London.

Bryman, A. (2012) Social Research Methods . Oxford University Press: Oxford.

David, M. and Sutton, C. D. (2011) Social Research: An Introduction . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Diamond, J. (1992) ‘Economic development and democracy reconsidered’, American Behavioral Scientist , 35, 4/5, 450-499.

Eckstein, H. (1975) Case Study and Theory in Political Science. In R. Gomm, M. Hammersley, and P. Foster (eds) Case Study Method . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006) ‘Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research’, Qualitative Inquiry , 12, 2, 219-245.

Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz . Basic Books Inc: New York.

Gerring, J. (2004) ‘What is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?’, American Political Science Review , 98, 2, 341-354.

Gerring, J. (2006a) Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Gerring, J. (2006b) ‘Single-Outcome Studies: A Methodological Primer’, International Sociology , 21, 5, 707-734.

Gerring, J. (2007) ‘Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 3, 231-253.

King, G., Keohane, R. O. and Verba, S. (1994) Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research . Princeton University Press: Chichester.

Layne, C. (1994) ‘Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 5-49.

Levy, J. S. (2008) ‘Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logics of Inference’, Conflict Management and Peace Science , 25, 1-18.

Lipset, S. M. (1959) ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy’, The American Political Science Review , 53, 1, 69-105.

Lyotard, J-F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge . University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis.

MacMillan, A. (2008) ‘Deviant Democratization in India’, Democratization , 15, 4, 733-749.

Maoz, Z. (2002) Case study methodology in international studies: from storytelling to hypothesis testing. In F. P. Harvey and M. Brecher (eds) Evaluating Methodology in International Studies . University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.

May, T. (2011) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process . Open University Press: Maidenhead.

Owen, J. M. (1994) ‘How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 87-125.

Seawright, J. and Gerring, J. (2008) ‘Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options’, Political Research Quarterly , 61, 2, 294-308.

Stake, R. E. (2008) Qualitative Case Studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry . Sage Publications: Los Angeles. Ch. 17.

Van Evera, S. (1997) Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science . Cornell University Press: Ithaca.

Verschuren, P. J. M. (2003) ‘Case study as a research strategy: some ambiguities and opportunities’, International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 6, 2, 121-139.

Yin, R. K. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and Methods . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

[1] The paper follows convention by differentiating between ‘International Relations’ as the academic discipline and ‘international relations’ as the subject of study.

[2] There is some similarity here with Stake’s (2008: 445-447) notion of intrinsic cases, those undertaken for a better understanding of the particular case, and instrumental ones that provide insight for the purposes of a wider external interest.

[3] These may be unique in the idiographic sense, or in nomothetic terms as an exception to the generalising suppositions of either probabilistic or deterministic theories (as per deviant cases, below).

[4] Although there are “philosophical hurdles to mount”, according to Bennett and Checkel, there exists no a priori reason as to why process tracing (as typically grounded in scientific realism) is fundamentally incompatible with various strands of positivism or interpretivism (2012: 18-19). By extension, it can therefore be incorporated by a range of contemporary mainstream IR theories.

— Written by: Ben Willis Written at: University of Plymouth Written for: David Brockington Date written: January 2013

Further Reading on E-International Relations

• Identity in International Conflicts: A Case Study of the Cuban Missile Crisis
• Imperialism’s Legacy in the Study of Contemporary Politics: The Case of Hegemonic Stability Theory
• Recreating a Nation’s Identity Through Symbolism: A Chinese Case Study
• Ontological Insecurity: A Case Study on Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in Jerusalem
• Terrorists or Freedom Fighters: A Case Study of ETA
• A Critical Assessment of Eco-Marxism: A Ghanaian Case Study

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Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

There is no doubt that case studies are a valuable and important form of research for all of the industries and fields that use them. However, along with all their advantages, they also have some disadvantages. In this article we are going to look at both.

Advantages of Case Studies

Intensive Study

Case study method is responsible for intensive study of a unit. It is the investigation and exploration of an event thoroughly and deeply. You get a very detailed and in-depth study of a person or event. This is especially the case with subjects that cannot be physically or ethically recreated.

This is one of the biggest advantages of the Genie case. You cannot lock up a child for 13 years and deprive them of everything. That would be morally and ethically wrong in every single way. So when the opportunity presented itself, researchers could not look away. It was a once in a lifetime opportunity to learn about feral children.

Genie was a feral child. She was raised in completed isolation, with little human contact. Because of the abuse she withstood, she was unable to develop cognitively. From infancy she was strapped to a potty chair, and therefore never acquired the physicality needed for walking, running and jumping.

If Genie made a noise, her father beat her. Therefore, she learned to not make a noise. Once she was found, researchers studied her language skills, and attempted to find ways to get her to communicate. They were successful. While she never gained the ability to speak, she did develop other ways to communicate. However, the public soon lost interest in her case, and with that, the funds to conduct the study.

However, her case was extremely important to child development psychology and linguistic theory. Because of her, we know that mental stimulation is needed for proper development. We also now know that there is a "critical period" for the learning of language.

Developing New Research

Case studies are one of the best ways to stimulate new research. A case study can be completed, and if the findings are valuable, they can lead to new and advanced research in the field. There has been a great deal of research done that wouldn't have been possible without case studies.

An example of this is the sociological study Nickel and Dimed. Nickel and Dimed is a book and study done by Barbara Ehrenreich. She wanted to study poverty in America, and did so by living and working as a person living on minimum wage.

Through her experiment, she discovered that poverty was almost inescapable. As soon as she saved a little money, she was hit with a crisis. She might get sick, or her car might break down, all occurrences that can be destructive when a person doesn't have a safety net to fall back on.

It didn't matter where she lived or what she did. Working a minimum wage job gave her no chances for advancement or improvement whatsoever. And she did the experiment as a woman with no children to support.

This study opened a lot of eyes to the problem of the working poor in America. By living and working as the experiment, Ehrenreich was able to show first-hand data regarding the issues surrounding poverty. The book didn't end with any solutions, just suggestions for the reader and points for them to think about.

Using this case study information, new studies could be organized to learn better ways to help people who are fighting poverty, or better ways to help the working poor.

Contradicting Established Ideas or Theories

Oftentimes there are theories that may be questioned with case studies. For example, in the John/John case study, it was believed that gender and sexual identity were a construct of nurture, not nature.

John-John focused on a set of twin boys, both of whom were circumcised at the age of 6 months. One of the twin's circumcisions failed, causing irreparable damage to the penis. His parents were concerned about the sexual health of their son, so they contacted Dr. John Money for a solution.

Dr. Money believed that sexuality came from nurture, not nature, and that the injured baby, Bruce, could be raised as a girl. His penis was removed and he was sexually reassigned to become a girl. Bruce's name was changed to Brenda, and his parents decided to raise him as a girl.

In this case, Dr. Money was dishonest. He believed that gender could be changed, which has since been proven false. Brenda's parents were also dishonest, stating that the surgery was a success, when in fact that wasn't the case.

As Brenda grew up, she always acted masculine and was teased for it at school. She did not socialize as a girl, and did not identify as a female. When Brenda was 13 she learned the truth, and was incredibly relieved. She changed her name to David, and lived the rest of her life as a male.

This case proved that the general theory was wrong, and is still valuable, even though the study author was dishonest.

Giving New Insight

Case studies have the ability to give insight into phenomena that cannot be learned in any other way. An example of this is the case study about Sidney Bradford. Bradford was blind from the age of 10 months old, and regained his sight at the age of 52 from a corneal transplant.

This unique situation allowed researchers to better learn how perception and motion changes when suddenly given sight. They were able to better understand how colors and dimensions affect the human process. For what it is worth, Bradford continued to live and work with his eyes closed, as he found sight too stimulating.

Another famous study was the sociological study of Milgram.

Stanley Milgram did a study from 1960 to 1974 in which he studied the effects of social pressure. The study was set up as an independent laboratory. A random person would walk in, and agree to be a part of the study. He was told to act as a teacher, and ask questions to another volunteer, who was the learner.

The teacher would ask the learner questions, and whenever he answered incorrectly, the teacher was instructed to give the learner an electric shock. Each time the learner was wrong, the shock would be increased by 15 volts. What the teacher didn't know was that the learner was a part of the experiment, and that no shocks were being given. However, the learner did act as if they were being shocked.

If the teachers tried to quit, they were strongly pushed to continue. The goal of the experiment was to see whether or not any of the teachers would go up to the highest voltage. As it turned out, 65% of the teachers did.

This study opened eyes when it comes to social pressure. If someone tells you it is okay to hurt someone, at what point will the person back off and say "this is not ok!" And in this study, the results were the same, regardless of income, race, gender or ethnicity.

This study opened up the sociological world of understanding the divide between social pressure and morality.

Disadvantages of Case Studies

Inability to Replicate

As demonstrated with the Genie case study, many studies cannot be replicated, and therefore, cannot be corroborated. Because the studies cannot be replicated, it means the data and results are only valid for that one person. Now, one could infer that that results of the Genie study would be the same with other feral children, without additional studies we can never be 100% certain.

Also, Genie was a white, American female. We do not know whether someone with a different gender, race or ethnicity would have a different result.

Key Term! Hawthorne Effect

The effect in which people change their behavior when they are aware they are being observed.

Researcher Bias

When conducting a case study, it is very possible for the author to form a bias. This bias can be for the subject; the form of data collection, or the way the data is interpreted. This is very common, since it is normal for humans to be subjective. It is well known that Sigmund Freud, the father of psychology, was often biased in his case histories and interpretations.

The researcher can become close to a study participant, or may learn to identify with the subject. When this happens the researcher loses their perspective as an outsider.

No Classification

Any classification is not possible due to studying a small unit. This generalization of results is limited, since the study is only focusing on one small group. However, this isn't always a problem, especially if generalization is not one of the study's goals.

Time Intensive

Case studies can be very time consuming. The data collection process can be very intensive and long, and this is something new researchers are not familiar with. It takes a long period of time to develop a case study, and develop a detailed analysis.

Many studies also require the authors to immerse themselves in the case. For example, in the Genie case, the lead researchers spent an abnormal amount of time with Genie, since so few people knew how to handle her. David Rigler, one of the lead researchers, actually had Genie live with him and his family for years. Because of this attachment, many questioned the veracity of the study data.

Possibility of Errors

Case study method may have errors of memory or judgment. Since reconstructing case history is based on memory, this can lead to errors. Also, how one person perceived the past could be different for another person, and this can and does lead to errors.

When considering various aspects of their lives, people tend to focus on issues that they find most important. This allows them to form a prejudice and can make them unaware of other possible options.

Ethical Issues

With small studies, there is always the question of ethics. At what point does a study become unethical? The Genie case was riddled with accusations of being unethical, and people still debate about it today.

Was it ethical to study Genie as deeply as she was studied?

Did Genie deserve to live out her life unbothered by researchers and academics trying to use her case to potentially further their careers?

At what point does the pursuit of scientific knowledge outweigh the right to a life free from research?

Also, because the researchers became so invested in the study, people questioned whether a researcher would report unethical behavior if they witnessed it.

Advantages and Disadvantages in Real-Life Studies

Two of these case studies are the Tylenol Scandal and the Genie language study.

Let's look at the advantages and disadvantages of these two studies.

Genie – Advantages

Uniqueness of study – Being able to study a feral child is a rare occurrence.

Genie – Disadvantages

Ethics - The lead researcher David Rigler provided a home for Genie, and was paid for being a foster parent. This is often seen as unethical, since Rigler had a financial interest in Genie and her case.

Tylenol – Advantages

Uniqueness of study – What happened to Tylenol was very unique and rare. While companies face crisis all the time, a public health crisis of this magnitude is very unique.

Tylenol – Disadvantages

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Case Study: Types, Advantages And Disadvantages

  Case Study: Types, Advantages And Disadvantages 

Case study is both method and tool for research. Case study is the intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective information rather than objective. It gives detailed knowledge about the phenomena and is not able to generalize beyond the knowledge.

Case studies aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization. According to its design, case study research method can be divided into three categories: explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.

Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions with little control on behalf of the researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case study focuses on phenomena within the contexts of real-life situations.

Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed. Case studies belonging to this category usually describe culture or sub-culture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena.

Exploratory case studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory case study data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s) such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc.

DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY

The case study or case history method is not a newer thing, but it is a linear descendent of very ancient methods of sociological description and generalization namely, the ‘parable’, the ‘allegory’, the ‘story’ and the ‘novel’.

According to P.V. Young . “A fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is called a life of case history.”

Thus, the case study is more intensive in nature; the field of study is comparatively limited but has more depth in it.

TYPES OF CASE STUDY

Six types of case studies are conducted which are as follows:

Community Studies: The community study is a careful description and analysis of a group of people living together in a particular geographic location in a corporative way. The community study deals with such elements of the community as location, appearance, prevailing economic activity, climate and natural sources, historical development, how the people live, the social structure, goals and life values, an evaluation of the social institutions within the community that meet the human needs etc. Such studies are case studies, with the community serving as the case under investigation.

Casual Comparative Studies: Another type of study seeks to find the answers to the problems through the analysis of casual relationships. What factors seem to be associated with certain occurrences, conditions or types of behaviour? By the methodology of descriptive research, the relative importance of these factors may be investigated.

Activity Analysis: The analysis of the activities or processes that an individual is called upon to perform is important, both in industry and in various types of social agencies. This process of analysis is appropriate in any field of work and at all levels of responsibility. In social system, the roles of superintendent, the principal, the teacher and the custodian have been carefully analyzed to discover what these individuals do and need to be able to do.

Content or Document Analysis: Content analysis, sometimes known as document analysis. Deals with the systematic examination of current records or documents as sources of data. In documentary analysis, the following may be used as sources of data: official records and reports, printed forms, text-books, reference books, letters, autobiographies diaries, pictures, films and cartoons etc . But in using documentary sources, one must bear in mind the fact that data appearing in print is not necessarily trustworthy. This content or document analysis should serve a useful purpose in research, adding important knowledge to a field to study or yielding information that is helpful in evaluating and improving social or educational practices.

A Follow-up Study: A follow-up study investigates individuals who have left an institution after having completed programme, a treatment or a course of study, to know what has been the impact of the institutions and its programme upon them. By examining their status or seeking their opinions, one may get some idea of the adequacy or inadequacy of the institutes programme. Studies of this type enable an institution to evaluate various aspects of its programme in the light of actual results.

Trend Studies: The trend or predictive study is an interesting application of the descriptive method. In essence, it is based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data, indicating what has been happening in the past, what does the present situation reveal and on the basis of these data, what will be likely to happen in the future.

Whatever type of case study is to conduct, it’s important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

ADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY

The main points of advantages of case study are given below:

Formation of valid hypothesis: Case study helps in formulating valid hypothesis. Once the various cases are extensively studied and analyze, the researcher can deduce various generalizations, which may be developed into useful hypotheses. It is admitted by all that the study of relevant literature and case study form the only potent sources of hypothesis.

  Useful in framing questionnaires and schedules: Case study is of great help in framing questionnaires, schedules or other forms. When a questionnaire is prepared after thorough case study the peculiarities of the group as well as individual units, become known also the type of response likely to be available, liking and aversions of the people. This helps in getting prompt response.

Sampling: Case study is of help in the stratification of the sample. By studying the individual units the researcher can put them in definite classes or types and thereby facilitate the perfect stratification of the sample.

Location of deviant cases: The case study makes it possible to locate deviant cases. There exists a general tendency to ignore them, but for scientific analysis, they are very important. The analysis of such cases is of valuable help in clarifying the theory itself.

Study of process: In cases where the problem under study constitutes a process and not one incident e.g. courtship process, clique formation etc., case study is the appropriate method as the case data is essential for valid study of such problems.

Enlarges experience: The range of personal experience of the researcher is enlarged by the case study on the other hand in statistical methods a narrow range of topics is selected, and the researcher’s knowledge is restricted to the particular aspect only.

Qualitative analysis in actual situation: Case study enables the establishment of the significance of the recorded data when the individual is alive and later on within the life of the classes of individuals. The researcher has the opportunity to come into contact with different classes of people and he is in a position to watch their life and hear their experiences. This provides him with an opportunity to acquire experiences of such life situations which he is never expected to lead.

This discussion highlights the advantages of the case data in social research. Social scientists developed the techniques to make it more perfect and remove the chances of bias.

LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY METHOD

Subjective bias: Research subjectivity in collecting data for supporting or refuting a particular explanation, personal view of investigation influences the findings and conclusion of the study.

Problem of objectivity: Due to excessive association with the social unit under investigation the researcher may develop self-justificatory data which are far from being factual.

Difficulty in comparison: Because of wide variations among human beings in terms of their response and behaviour, attitudes and values, social setting and circumstances, etc., the researcher actually finds it difficult to trace out two social units which are identical in all respects. This hinders proper comparison of cases.

A time, energy and money consuming method: The preparation of a case history involves a lot of time and expenditure of human energy, therefore, there is every possibility that most of the cases may get stray. Due to such difficulties, only a few researchers can afford to case study method.

Time span: Long time span may be another factor that is likely to distort the information provided by the social unit to the researcher.

Unreliable source material: The two major sources of case study are: Personal documents and life history. But in both these cases, the records or the own experience of the social units may not present a true picture. On the contrary, the social unit may try to suppress his unpleasant facts or add colour to them. As a result, the conclusions drawn do not give a true picture and dependable findings.

Scope for wrong conclusions: The case study is laden with inaccurate observation, wrong inferences, faulty reporting, memory failure, repression or omission of unpleasant facts in an unconscious manner, dramatization of facts, more imaginary description, and difficulty in choosing a case typical of the group. All these problems provide the researcher with every possibility of drawing wrong conclusions and errors.

Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to the common readers everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations.

__________________________________________________________________________

Research Methodology Methods and Techniques~C. R. Kothari (p.113) - Link

Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics~Yogesh Kumar Singh (Chapter–10: Case Study Method p. 147) - Link

Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches~W. Lawrence Neuman (p.42) - Link

The Basics of Social Research~Earl Babbie (p.280) - Link

Social Science Research Principles, Methods, and Practices~Anol Bhattacherjee (93) - Link

PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input - Link

A Case in Case Study Methodology - Link

Case Study Method - Link1 & Link 2

Unit-4 Case Study - Link

Case study as a research method - Link

Case_Study~Tanya Sammut-Bonnici and John McGee - Link

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• R. M. Channaveer 4 &
• Rajendra Baikady 5  

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This chapter reviews the strengths and limitations of case study as a research method in social sciences. It provides an account of an evidence base to justify why a case study is best suitable for some research questions and why not for some other research questions. Case study designing around the research context, defining the structure and modality, conducting the study, collecting the data through triangulation mode, analysing the data, and interpreting the data and theory building at the end give a holistic view of it. In addition, the chapter also focuses on the types of case study and when and where to use case study as a research method in social science research.

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Channaveer, R.M., Baikady, R. (2022). Case Study. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_21

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

• 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

Learn more about HBS Online's approach to the case method in the video below, and subscribe to our YouTube channel for more.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span eight subject areas, including:

• Business essentials
• Leadership and management
• Entrepreneurship and innovation
• Digital transformation
• Finance and accounting
• Business in society

No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

About the Author

Making the case for artisanal and small-scale mining

Image Caption Artisanal and small-scale miners load bags of copper and cobalt ore near Kolwezi, DRC. Each bag can weigh up to 75 kilograms. Image credit: Espérant Mwishamali

Contact: [email protected]

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) comes with significant challenges, especially since this kind of mining typically lacks regulation and can be socially and environmentally harmful. But ASM also plays a critical role in supplying the world with minerals vital for decarbonization, which is one reason why a study led by University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability (SEAS) Assistant Research Scientist Brandon Marc Finn argues that ASM should be embraced.

“There is no decarbonization without mining these and other minerals. To move away from coal, oil and gas, the global energy system must mine critical minerals,” said Finn. “At the same time, we argue that ASM should be recognized as an essential social and environmental justice issue of our time.”

Study co-authors are SEAS Professor Joshua Newell, and Adam Simon, professor of earth and environmental sciences at the College of Literature, Science and the Arts.

Read the expert Q&A on the Michigan News website .

Joint Tenancy vs Tenancy in Common: Understanding Property Co-ownership Options

When it comes to property ownership, the terms ‘joint tenancy’ and ‘tenancy in common’ often surface. Though they may seem interchangeable, they’re not. Each term carries unique implications for property rights , inheritance, and tax obligations.

Understanding the difference between joint tenants vs tenants in common is crucial if you’re planning to buy, sell, or co-own a property. It’s about more than just who holds the keys—it’s about the legal and financial intricacies that underpin property ownership.

In this article, we’ll delve into the complexities of these two types of property co-ownership. We aim to clarify their similarities, highlight their differences, and help you make an informed decision about which arrangement suits your situation best. So, let’s embark on this real estate journey together.

Understanding Joint Tenancy

A thorough comprehension of joint tenancy presents numerous advantages. It’s paramount for navigating property rights, tax obligations, and inheritance concerns with clarity and certainty. This section delves into the vital elements of joint tenacy and examines its pros and cons.

Essential Features of Joint Tenancy

A joint tenancy consists of several critical attributes that define its uniqueness. Simultaneously, the defining aspects constitute the ‘Four Unities’. They encompass Unity of Interest (all owners hold equal interest), Unity of Time (all owners acquire interest simultaneously), Unity of Title (all owners gain interest under the same deed), and Unity of Possession (all owners have equal right to possession of entire property).

Consider this situation as an example. If Anne and Ben purchase a house as joint tenants, both acquire 50% interest. It doesn’t matter if Anne contributes more towards the purchase. They both gained ownership at the same time, under the same Quitclaim deed  and equally share the right to property possession.

Another key feature fosters the concept of ‘Right of Survivorship’. In a tragic event leading to one owner’s death, the deceased owner’s share directly passes to the surviving owner(s), bypassing probate. In light of this, if Ben were to pass away, his 50% share would directly go to Anne, without the need for a will or involvement of the probate court.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Joint Tenancy

Joint tenancy carries distinct benefits and drawbacks. One clear advantage involves seamless transfer of ownership upon an owner’s death, bypassing a lengthy probate process. This facilitates a smooth transition of property rights without legal intervention, which often occurs in Tenancy in Common.

However, a Joint Tenancy limits personal freedom in terms of property rights. An owner cannot independently sell, lease, or mortgage their share without the consent of all joint tenants.

Specifically, if Ben desired to lease out his share, he couldn’t do that without Anne’s approval. If disagreements arise and consensus remains unachievable, a joint tenant holds the right to seek a partition action, which often result in the sale of the entire property.

The tax implications of joint tenancy merit careful consideration. Unlike tenancy in common, joint tenants cannot benefit from step-up in basis, which could potentially lead to higher capital gains taxes for the surviving owner(s) when they sell the property.

Engaging a property lawyer or a tax consultant can help potential joint tenants understand the nuances better and thus, make an informed decision. Joint tenancy and tenants in common each present their unique aspects and individuals must choose the one that aligns best with their objectives and circumstances.

Exploring Tenancy in Common

Building on the understanding of joint tenancy, it’s time to delve into the specifics of ‘tenancy in common.’

Key Characteristics of Tenancy in Common

Being a form of co-ownership, Tenancy in Common offers a unique set of characteristics. Let’s walk through them.

Separate Shares : Co-owners hold separate, distinct shares in the property. These shares may be equal or unequal, depending on the agreement. For instance, one owner may hold a 60% share while the other has a 40% share.

Independence of Shares : Each co-owner’s share operates independently of the others. They possess the freedom to transfer, sell, or mortgage their share without requiring consent from the other owners.

No Right of Survivorship : Unlike joint tenancy, there’s no right of survivorship in tenancy in common. That means, upon a co-owner’s death, their share in the property isn’t automatically transferred to the surviving co-owner(s). Instead, it’s passed onto the deceased’s heirs or estate as determined by their will or state intestacy laws.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tenancy in Common

Tenancy in Common, like any co-ownership arrangement, presents certain advantages and disadvantages.

• Flexibility of Ownership : With their separate, individual shares, co-owners enjoy greater flexibility in managing their portion of the property. They can easily transfer, encumber, or sell their share without needing approval from others.
• Estate Planning : Due to the lack of survivorship rights, co-owners can use tenancy in common as a handy tool for estate planning. For instance, they may pass their share to their preferred heirs rather than the remaining co-owners.
• Complexity in Management : With multiple co-owners holding different shares and interests, managing the property can become complex, and conflicts may arise.
• Potential for Forced Sale : In case of a co-owner’s bankruptcy or debt issues, their share can be used to repay their creditors, potentially leading to a forced sale of the property.

Balancing the advantages and disadvantages, and assessing one’s personal circumstances and objectives, is key in selecting the suitable co-ownership arrangement. Always remember that professional legal and tax advice can be invaluable in making these complex decisions.

Differences Between Joint Tenants and Tenants in Common

This section further clarifies the distinctions between joint tenants and tenants in common. It concentrates on key aspects, namely ownership interests, survivorship rights, and the transfer of interest.

Ownership Interests

Joint tenancy carries an inherent characteristic of equal interest. For example, if three individuals have joint tenancy, each holds an equal one-third interest in the property. What separates tenants in common, however, is this lack of equality. With tenants in common, the owners might have unequal shares in the property. One could own 50%, another 25%, and the third 25% – the proportions can be tailored according to individual circumstances and agreement.

Survivorship Rights

A pivotal difference lies in the survivorship rights. In a joint tenancy, a distinguishing feature prevails – the right of survivorship . When one joint tenant dies, the deceased’s share is passed on, and divided equally among the surviving joint tenants. There’s no need for probate, which simplifies the transfer process . Tenants in common, conversely, do not possess this right. When one dies, their share forms part of their estate, which can then be bequeathed to anyone they name in their will. If there’s no will, statutory rules determine the beneficiaries.

Transfer of Interest

Lastly, the flexibility in the transfer of interest marks another significant variance. In joint tenancy, without the consent of other tenants, a joint tenant cannot transfer their interest. It’s all or nothing. If a joint tenant decides to sell their share, the joint tenancy is broken, and a tenancy in common replaces it. Tenants in common don’t face this restriction. They have the freedom to transfer or sell their share without affecting the other tenants. Consequently, it injects a level of uncertainty into the co-ownership as new, potentially unintended co-owners may become part of the arrangement.

Case Studies and Real-Life Examples

In this section, we’ll dive into practical examples to understand joint tenancy and tenancy in common better. Real-life instances can shed light on these co-ownership strategies, highlighting their benefits and challenges.

Joint Tenancy Example

Consider a case where four friends, Alex, Bella, Carl, and Dana, decide to buy a vacation home together. They opt for the joint tenancy route. As per the principles of joint tenancy, they have equal ownership rights. All four are active on the property deed, and the property isn’t divided into unique parts. The unity of possession, interest, time, and title—the Four Unities—exists in this scenario.

Suppose Dana passes away unexpectedly. Her shares automatically divide equally among Alex, Bella, and Carl via the right of survivorship , irrespective of what Dana’s will states. The property doesn’t have to go through probate, saving time and expenses—an advantage of joint tenancy. However, Dana’s heirs won’t receive any portion of the property, regardless of her wishes—an inherent drawback that limits the individual’s rights in joint tenancy.

Tenancy in Common Example

Let’s take a hypothetical situation where siblings James and Emily inherit a property from their parents. They become tenants in common by default. In this relationship, James owns 70% of the property, while Emily owns 30%, highlighting that the shares in a tenancy in common aren’t necessarily equal.

If James wishes, he can sell his share or bequeath it to his daughter, showcasing the autonomy tenants in common have. Suppose James passes away; his daughter inherits his 70% share. Emily still retains her 30% share. In this case, James’ share doesn’t automatically transfer to Emily, indicating the absence of a right of survivorship —a distinct characteristic of tenancy in common. However, James’ share would pass through probate—a time-consuming and potentially costly process—a disadvantage to consider in a tenancy in common arrangement.

Legal Considerations and Implications

Digging deeper into the two ownership arrangements, the focus now shifts to the specific legal considerations and implications of Joint Tenancy and Tenancy in Common. The legal specifics define the dynamics of these co-ownership agreements and shape the owners’ rights, responsibilities, and repercussions.

Legal Aspects of Joint Tenancy

Joint Tenancy, robustly bound by law, shores up the notion of unity. Clear-cut stipulations dictate that all joint tenants acquire the property simultaneously under the same title, hold equal interests, and possess an undivided right to use the property. In essence, you’re legally intertwined; if one joint tenant incurs debt, property can be sold to recover the debt – even if other tenants disagree.

Moreover, absorbing legal punches is one part of the deal. The other side concerns the “Right of Survivorship.” Simply put, when one joint tenant dies, property interest transfers automatically to surviving tenants. No probate is needed, sidestepping delays and legal costs . Still, imprudent actions can break the joint tenancy and inadvertently create a Tenancy in Common – a shark-infested water for those unaware of the law’s finicky intricacies.

Legal Aspects of Tenancy in Common

On the flip side, Tenancy in Common licenses owners to possess unequal shares and dole out or sell their shares independently. This freedom to manage personal shares offers tremendous flex for estate planning. However, it’s not all sunshine and rainbows; when a tenant dies, their share doesn’t volley to surviving tenants but slingshots into the probate process instead. As unpalatable as it can be, distributing the deceased party’s interest invokes legal intervention, possibly breeding disputes.

Moreover, with flexibility comes potential turmoil. Tenants in Common grapple with the lack of enforced unity, possibly resulting in management disagreements and forced property sales. This shows that a lack of legal clarity can lead to a can of worms; thus, understanding the legal specifics is quintessential for potential co-owners to navigate the murky waters of property co-ownership.

Which is the Right Choice: Joint Tenants or Tenants in Common?

Deciding between joint tenancy and tenancy in common gets dictated by circumstances and individual needs. Examining personal requirements, understanding legal nuances, and assessing potential implications typically direct the decision. Let’s dive into the factors affecting the choice:

Financial Goals and Estate Planning

Joint tenancy offers simple estate planning, as property transfers automatically to the surviving joint tenant without going through probate. This arrangement suits those prioritizing a hassle-free transfer upon death. However, tenancy in common provides more flexibility, as individual shares can be passed to heirs other than the co-tenant. Those looking to devise estate plans involving more than just co-tenants often find this a more appealing option.

Relationship with Co-owner

Understanding the nature of the relationship with the co-owner also plays a critical role in deciding between joint tenancy and tenancy in common. Typically, joint tenancy is popular among married couples due to the right of survivorship. On the other hand, unrelated co-owners, like business partners, often prefer tenancy in common, as it allows disparate ownership percentages.

Future Plan for Property

Predicting the property’s future uses influences the choice considerably. In joint tenancy, selling or gifting a property share converts the entire ownership into a tenancy in common. Oppositely, a tenant in common can sell or gift his share without affecting the arrangement’s format. Therefore, predicting future plans for the property directs the preference towards an appropriate ownership type.

Risk of Disputes

Potential disputes among co-owners strongly shape the decision. Tenancy in common might lead to disagreements when a co-tenant decides to sell the share or when potential disagreements arise regarding property management . Contrarily, joint tenancy offers less room for conflict, though unexpected death of a tenant and subsequent automatic share transfer might pose challenges.

Ultimately, the choice between joint tenancy and tenancy in common isn’t a one-size-fits-all solution. It hinges on the shared priorities, intentions, and goals of the co-owners. Therefore, consulting a legal professional becomes essential to fully comprehend the implications of each property ownership type and make an informed decision. Knowledge about both joint tenancy and tenancy in common remains crucial in efficiently navigating the complexities of property co-ownership.

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Choosing between joint tenancy and tenancy in common is a critical decision. It’s not just about property rights, but also inheritance, tax obligations, and co-owner relationships. Joint tenancy offers equal ownership and automatic share transfer upon death, but it may limit individual rights. On the other hand, tenancy in common provides flexibility in ownership and estate planning but may involve probate and potential forced sales. It’s important to remember that no one-size-fits-all solution exists. The choice should align with the co-owners’ shared priorities, intentions, and goals. Therefore, it’s crucial to consult a legal professional to fully understand the implications of each ownership type. This will ensure effective property co-ownership management tailored to the unique needs of all parties involved.

What is joint tenancy in property ownership?

Joint tenancy is a form of shared property ownership where each owner, known as a joint tenant, has equal rights to the property. This includes the ‘Right of Survivorship,’ which ensures the property automatically transfers to surviving co-owners upon the death of one joint tenant.

How does joint tenancy differ from tenancy in common?

Unlike joint tenancy which provides equal ownership and rights, tenancy in common allows each of the co-owners to hold different proportions of the property and does not include a right of survivorship. Each co-owner’s stake can be vended separately in tenancy in common.

What are the tax implications of joint tenancy?

A notable disadvantage of joint tenancy is the lack of step-up in basis, which can lead to significant capital gains tax liability for the surviving co-owner(s) when the property is eventually sold.

How can disputes arise in tenancy in common?

Disputes can arise in tenancy in common due to its flexibility in ownership shares, which can lead to disagreements about property management or when one of the co-owners wishes to sell their share of the property.

How do financial goals influence the decision between joint tenancy and tenancy in common?

Financial goals play a crucial role in determining the type of co-ownership. For instance, joint tenancy benefits those prioritizing easier property rights transfer upon death, while tenancy in common is preferable for people who want flexibility in property shares and have specific estate planning goals.

What should be considered when choosing the form of property co-ownership?

The choice of property co-ownership should consider the co-owners’ shared priorities, intentions, future property plans, risk of disputes, and the relationship with the co-owner. It’s important to consult a legal professional to fully understand the implications of each ownership type.

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Top 10 Benefits of Live Chat To Improve Customer Service

Live chat is a real-time communication tool that enables website visitors to interact directly with a representative through a text-based interface.

Many businesses are considering adding live chat to their websites to automate support and speed up processes, ultimately enhancing the customer experience.

But what exactly makes live chat so beneficial for businesses?

Stick around to find out.

Here are the top 10 live chat benefits we’ll discuss in this article:

• Quicker response times
• Increased agent productivity
• Decrease of costs
• Better data collection
• Improved customer satisfaction
• Better visitor engagement
• Drop in cart abandonment rate
• Increase in lead generation
• Boost in conversion rates
• Boost in sales and revenue

Improve customer experience and boost sales with live chat

If you’re interested in more articles about live chat, check these out:

• 16 Best Live Chat Software for Websites [Reviews]
• 70+ Useful Live Chat Script Templates for Effective Customer Support
• Live Chat Etiquette For Customer Service: Best Practices, Tips & Examples

Let’s jump right in—

What are the benefits of live chat?

Having phone support and only being available during the business hours won’t cut it anymore. Even though customers still want to speak to a real person and receive personalized support, they don’t want to wait for it.

Live chat is the best solution for this problem.

Here are its key benefits—

1. Quicker response times

One key advantage of live chat is the ability to respond immediately to customer inquiries. Unlike email support, which may take hours or days, live chat allows for real-time communication. This is clear when you consider that the average wait time for live chat is 46 seconds , compared to 12 hours for email support.

Quick response times not only satisfy the customer’s need for immediate information but also demonstrate your company’s commitment to responsive customer service. This speed can be crucial in preventing customers from seeking alternatives or abandoning their purchase intentions.

Here’s a real-life example of a company making the most out of this benefit of live chat customer service. 

Shockbyte used live chat to decrease response time by 29% and engage more clients. The business boosted incoming chats by 13% and increased satisfaction by 16% after implementing a chat widget on the site.

Read more: Learn more about the company and how Tidio helped Shockbyte improve customer service.

Cut response times using live chat with automation features

2. Increase in agent productivity

Chat software often includes features like canned responses and AI-assisted suggestions, which speed up response times and allow agents to handle customer queries more efficiently. This increased productivity can lead to cost savings and improved customer service without expanding your support team.

For example, Suitor uses live chat to communicate with clients more efficiently. The business also makes the most of the bots and automation integrated into its live chat to streamline repetitive tasks and repetitive tasks as well as workflows.

The number one thing that has grown our business is offering that customer service experience the rest of the market has not been able to do. Daniel Reid Co-founder and CEO of Suitor

Read more: Check out the Suitor case study to find out how the company automated the customer service using a combination of live chat and chatbots.

3. Decrease of costs

Implementing live chat can lead to significant cost savings for your customer service operations. That’s because chat agents can handle multiple chats simultaneously, reducing the need for a large support team.

Additionally, by deflecting simple queries from phone lines, you can reduce the costs associated with maintaining a call center. The efficiency of live chat also means shorter interaction times, further contributing to cost reduction while maintaining or even improving service quality.

A good example of a company that uses the benefits of live chat support is Gecko Hospitality . The business automated 90% of customer service requests and decreased the waiting times from about 72 hours to 90 seconds.

Read more: Check out Gecko Hospitality case study to discover more about the business and how Tidio helped the brand speed up its processes.

4. Better data collection

About 73% of customers who use live chat are satisfied with the amount of data they need to provide. This makes live chat a great tool for collecting your visitors’ contact information, customer behavior, preferences, and pain points. 

Each chat session generates data that can be analyzed to improve products, services, and overall customer experience. This information can inform your marketing strategies, help refine your FAQ sections, and identify areas for website improvement. The direct nature of chat also allows for gathering immediate feedback on new products or features.

An example of a company leveraging this benefit of live chat software is Integratec . The brand uses the live chat solution to segment customers properly and gather valuable insights. This improved the company’s ticket tracking and boosted qualified lead collection.

Read more: Discover how Integratec used Tidio to organize and manage the brand’s customer communication.

5. Improved customer satisfaction

This is one of the benefits of live chat for customer service, which focuses on providing clients with a quick and convenient way to get help. This immediacy and ease of use often lead to a better shopping experience and higher customer satisfaction. In fact, the live chat feature has the highest satisfaction rate ( 92% ) of all customer service channels.

Buyers appreciate the ability to multitask while chatting, avoid phone queues, and get their issues resolved promptly. The personalized attention and real-time problem-solving that live chat apps offer can turn potentially frustrated customers into loyal advocates for your brand.

An example of a company profiting from this benefit of webchat is ADT Security Service . The business achieved a 30% increase in customer satisfaction since using live chat. That’s because the support agents gained more insights about the visitors and were able to manage tickets more efficiently.

Read more: Check out the full case study to find out more about the results ADT Security achieved when using Tidio .

6. Better visitor engagement

Another one of the benefits of live chat for ecommerce is that it provides an opportunity to engage with website visitors proactively. By initiating conversations based on behavior triggers, you can address potential concerns before they lead to site abandonment. 

This proactive approach helps to create a more interactive and personalized browsing experience, making visitors feel valued and more likely to engage with your brand. Interestingly, about 79% of businesses say offering live chat has had a positive effect on sales, revenue, and customer loyalty.

Wulff Beltton uses live chat to engage with visitors and provide good experiences. And thanks to the user-friendly interface and reliable notifications, the company achieved a 4.6/5 ⭐️ client rating. 

Read more: Check out the full Wulff Beltton case study to learn how they’re using Tidio to boost their results.

7. Drop in cart abandonment rates

Shopping cart abandonment is a significant issue for ecommerce businesses. But a live chat window can help reduce abandonment rates by addressing customer concerns, questions, and issues in real time. By providing immediate assistance, you can overcome objections and guide customers through the purchase process, recover potentially lost sales, and improve your conversion rates.

One business benefiting from the advantages of live chat on websites is Bella Sante . Instead of relying on phone calls and a website knowledge base, the company implemented live chat for personalized, real-time client communication. 

Read more: Learn how Bella Sante boosted sales by $66K and increased lead generation using Tidio.

8. Increase in lead generation

Live chat serves as an excellent tool for capturing leads. That’s because by engaging visitors proactively, you can collect contact information and understand the prospect’s needs before they leave your website. This allows you to nurture these leads more effectively through targeted follow-ups. 

Moreover, the convenience of chat often encourages visitors who might be hesitant to fill out a form to engage with your business, expanding your pool of potential customers. And we found that live chat can automatically convert about 4% of your visitors into leads.

Procosmet experienced these live chat advantages. The company improved lead generations by 500% per month. This is because of the user-friendly interface of chat automations asking visitors for contact details and offering newsletter subscriptions.

Our goal has always been to develop a healthy community and thanks to Tidio, we are getting closer, enriching our databases with healthy and interested new contacts, every day. Gabriele Scarcella  Ecommerce manager at Procosmet

Read more: Learn more about the brand in this Procosmet case study and discover the benefits it enjoys thanks to Tidio live chat. 

9. Boost in conversions

Live chat solutions can significantly increase your website’s conversion rate by providing immediate assistance to potential customers. When visitors have questions or concerns about your products or services, having a real-time chat option allows them to get instant answers. In turn, this reduces the hesitation and increases the likelihood of completing a purchase or signing up for a service. 

The immediate interaction can be the difference between a bounce and a conversion, making live chat a powerful tool for improving your bottom line. In fact, a study shows that websites that use live chat have a 20% increase in conversions.

Here’s a real-life example of a business that achieved higher conversion rates thanks to using live chat. 

Ad Hoc Atelier emphasizes the personalization of products and communication, which is why increasing customer engagement was so important for the brand. The live chat widget enabled the company to replicate the in-store experience of an assistant coming over when you walk into a physical store.

Live chat is the best solution because you can talk to the consumer at the exact moment they want to buy your product or customize it. Lorenzo Colucci Co-founder and CMO of Ad Hoc Atelier

Read more: Discover how Tidio helped Ad Hoc Atelier boost engagement, increase conversions, and slash cart abandonment rates.

10. Boost in sales

Live chat is an essential customer service tool , but it can also directly impact your revenue by providing opportunities for upselling and cross-selling. For example, live chat agents can recommend complementary products, suggest upgrades, or inform customers about ongoing promotions during the chat conversations. This is one of the benefits of live chat for customers, that personalizes the approach and leads to higher average order values. 

Additionally, by addressing customer concerns in real time, live chat functionality can enhance the sales process and guide customers through the funnel more effectively. As ICMI research shows, live chat leads to a 48% increase in revenue per chat hour.

One example of a company benefiting from live chat increasing sales is eye-oo . This multi-brand platform achieved a 25% increase in sales and €177K revenue growth. And the business states that’s thanks to the cart recovery features, improved customer service, and better insight into customer data.

By offering prompt and helpful assistance through Tidio's live chat and chat flows features, we have built trust with our customers. Evelin Lopez Marketing Manager at eye-oo

Read more: Learn more about how Tidio helped eye-oo boost sales and revenue. Also, check out this article about the best live chat for sales with tips and techniques.

Benefits of live chat: summary

Let’s face it—

Implementing live chat is no longer just an option. It’s a necessity for businesses aiming to stay competitive and customer-centric. 

Here’s a recap of the top benefits of having live chat on your website:

As customer expectations continue to evolve, live chat stands out as a powerful tool that not only meets client needs but often exceeds them, fostering loyalty and driving growth. So, if you want to enhance your online presence and support experience, integrating live chat into the support strategy is a must.

Use live chat and improve your customer experience

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Never Leave Your Customer Without an Answer

• Open access
• Published: 28 August 2024

Examining the effectiveness of food literacy interventions in improving food literacy behavior and healthy eating among adults belonging to different socioeconomic groups- a systematic scoping review

• Arijita Manna   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9697-7718 1 ,
• Helen Vidgen 1 &
• Danielle Gallegos 1  

Systematic Reviews volume  13 , Article number:  221 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

In high-income countries, significant diet-related health inequalities exist between people of different socioeconomic backgrounds. Individuals who face socioeconomic challenges are less likely to meet dietary guidelines, leading to increased incidence and prevalence of morbidity and mortality associated with dietary risk factors. To promote healthy eating, strategies may focus on individual-level factors (e.g., knowledge, skills, and behavior) along with broader societal factors (e.g., social determinants of health). The concept of food literacy is considered an individual-level factor and has been framed as a skill set that individuals must possess to effectively navigate the complexities of the modern food system. Food literacy interventions can be a complementary but effective tool for encouraging healthy eating behavior among diverse populations, including those facing socioeconomic disadvantage. However, there is limited evidence to guide the design of food literacy intervention for vulnerable population groups. In the process of developing an ideal portfolio of solutions and strategies to promote food literacy and healthy eating for people experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage, this systematic scoping review aims to comprehensively examine the effects of food literacy interventions on promoting food literacy behavior and healthy eating in adults (18 years and above) from various socioeconomic groups (SEGs) in high-income countries.

The review includes both qualitative and quantitative papers obtained from academic databases, including MEDLINE (via EBSCOhost), Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. In addition to the electronic search, manual forward and backward citation searching will be conducted to identify additional relevant papers. Food literacy interventions will be evaluated across four domains: planning and management, selection, preparation, and consumption. Papers included in the review will be analyzed for process, impact, and outcome evaluation. The main outcome of a food literacy intervention is the modification in eating behavior, while the mechanism for this action will be through impact measure of food literacy behaviors. Implementation factors will be extracted for process evaluation. This review will also include a range of dietary behavior measures, such as diet quality index and dietary intake indicator. The screening process for all citations, full-text articles, and abstract data will be carried out by two reviewers independently. In case of any potential conflicts, they will be resolved through discussion. The quality of quantitative studies will be reviewed using the JBI critical appraisal checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies. The “Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Studies (COREQ)” will be used to report on the quality of qualitative papers. Systematic review registration: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/TPNKU

Peer Review reports

Introduction

In recent years, there has been an epidemiological shift on a global scale, characterized by the prevalence of non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs), part of which can be attributed to unhealthy dietary patterns [ 39 ]. Globally, 42.0 million deaths were caused by non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in 2019. Among them, dietary risk factors were responsible for 7.9 million deaths and 187.7 million DALYs (disability-adjusted life years) [ 74 ]. In response, governments and policymakers worldwide are pushing for strong facilitation of healthy eating. Healthy eating comprises a healthy diet that is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one that “protects against malnutrition in all its forms, as well as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including diabetes, heart disease, stroke and cancer” (2020). However, facilitating healthy eating is complex. Eating, as a dynamic and complex health behavior [ 48 , 56 ], is influenced by various factors that operate at individual, community, and societal levels [ 37 , 44 , 56 , 61 , 79 ]. Factors such as social context, economic conditions, and community and family factors heavily impact any health behavior, including eating [ 56 , 59 , 78 ]. These factors are collectively known as social determinants of health (SDHs). [ 78 ]. It is essential to acknowledge that social determinants play a crucial role in developing and maintaining healthy eating habits [ 22 , 26 , 58 ].

Out of all social determinants, socioeconomic position (SEP) has a significant impact on what people eat, leading to socioeconomic inequalities in healthy eating among different income groups. Education, income, occupation, gender, and ethnicity are examples of interlinked socioeconomic and sociodemographic factors that collectively can modulate eating [ 1 , 45 , 81 ]. Many high-income countries, including Australia, exhibit evidence of SEP-linked inequalities with regard to healthy eating [ 3 , 4 ]. Individuals in higher income brackets, with advanced educational backgrounds, and residing in more affluent communities are more capable of consuming a well-balanced and nutritious diet, leading to better overall health outcomes. [ 38 , 40 ]. Conversely, people facing social and economic disadvantage are less able to access and consume a healthy diet, resulting in a higher incidence and prevalence of morbidity and mortality rates from diet-related NCDs among this group [ 1 , 12 , 20 , 24 , 38 , 43 ].

Poor diet and unhealthy eating habits are considered to be risk factors for chronic diet-related diseases worldwide, even in high-income countries. In most high-income countries, the negative effects of poor diets are disproportionately felt by lower socioeconomic populations, Indigenous Peoples, and those living in rural and remote areas [ 2 , 20 , 62 ]. Interestingly, what people consider to be healthy eating varies widely between countries and cultures too, along with other social determinants of health [ 14 , 16 , 49 ]. Moreover, there are significant disparities in the food environment between low- and high-income countries [ 69 ]. These differences in perceptions limit the generalizability of the findings and highlight the need to focus specifically on high-income countries when devising policies and strategies aimed at improving dietary patterns and nutrition-related outcomes.

Improving dietary habits is a complex issue that requires a multidisciplinary approach that takes into account the social context [ 57 ]. Among the different approaches or interventions aimed at influencing eating habits positively, food literacy has emerged as crucial in potentially enhancing diet quality as well as promoting good health [ 18 ]. Within policy and practice, interventions aimed at promoting healthy eating habits frequently focus on modifying personal behavior by influencing individual-level factors such as skills, knowledge, and beliefs while also addressing the underlying determinants that impact eating behavior [ 26 , 41 ]. As outlined by (Velardo) in [ 71 ], food literacy focuses on enhancing individual knowledge that leads to the development of personal skills, such as critical decision-making, goal setting, and confidence in cooking. The importance of food literacy is that it recognizes that healthy eating is not just an individual responsibility but is also influenced by social structural factors [ 21 , 64 , 73 ].

Food literacy interventions are increasingly being developed and implemented. In accordance with the food literacy conceptual models, it is generally postulated that improvement in food literacy behavior has the potential to elicit favorable outcomes in terms of dietary intake and, as a consequence, overall health. This is essentially the underlying premise upon which all food literacy interventions or programs are running [ 7 ]. As proposed by Vidgen and Gallegos [ 73 ], the widely accepted food literacy model has four interconnected domains, which are (1) planning and management, (2) selection, (3) preparation, and (4) eating. An ideal food literacy intervention should incorporate all four domains so that participants can achieve a comprehensive understanding of the interconnected knowledge, skills, and behavior essential to strengthen their connection with food and effectively adapt diet quality through changes, thus empowering people [ 13 , 73 ]. Often many of these interventions are especially targeted at communities with less access to healthy diets, such as people living with socioeconomic disadvantage, where these interventions can make a real difference [ 7 , 13 , 76 ]. Evidence suggests that well-planned and implemented food literacy interventions can impact the healthy eating behavior of people facing socioeconomic disadvantage. For example, OZHarvest’s NEST (Nutrition Education Skills Training) program is an intensive, 6-week, 15-h public health nutrition intervention in Australia designed to enhance the nutritional knowledge, food literacy, and cooking skills of Australian adults living with socioeconomic disadvantage [ 47 , 76 ]. Attendees involved in OZHarvest’s NEST Program showed improvements in their cooking skills, used healthier ingredients, applied proper cooking methods, made cost-effective ingredient substitutions, made informed choices when selecting food items, and managed to stay within their meal budgets [ 76 ].

Food literacy in the context of socioeconomic position is not well understood. There has been some limited exploration of the connection between social determinants of health and food literacy [ 21 , 64 , 73 ]. Also, investment in FL interventions by governments is based on the assumption that developing higher food literacy levels will positively impact dietary behavior. Various food literacy programs have been initiated to improve food literacy, especially among vulnerable population groups [ 8 ]. Studies have shown that food literacy interventions have promise in promoting healthy eating habits among adults from low socioeconomic backgrounds [ 7 , 13 , 76 ]. However, many interventions fail to report on their outcomes or conduct follow-up evaluations, which is contrary to best-practice recommendations [ 33 ]. Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews available to verify the effectiveness of these interventions in enhancing food literacy behavior and encouraging healthy eating among vulnerable population groups [ 5 ]. This research gap can be addressed through a scoping review, which can identify available evidence, examine research methodologies, and determine whether food literacy interventions have been beneficial in promoting healthy eating and food literacy behavior among vulnerable population groups.

Upon initial exploration of several academic databases, including MEDLINE, Embase, and Google Scholar, it has become clear that there are currently existing systematic reviews (Kelly and Nash, 2021; Vaitkeviciute et al. 2015) as well as planned protocols (Doustmohammadian et al. 2020) that examine the effectiveness of food literacy. However, it should be noted that neither of these systematic reviews specifically target the adult population, nor do they incorporate socioeconomic position as a factor of interest in the analysis. Therefore, the aim of this review is to examine, through a systematic approach, food literacy interventions and their effectiveness in improving food literacy behavior and healthy eating among different socioeconomic groups in high-income countries.

Study design

A protocol has been registered on the Open Science Framework Registries on July 17, 2023. This proposed systematic scoping review will be conducted using the JBI scoping review methodology outlined in “Chapter 11: Scoping reviews” [ 50 , 51 , 51 ]. The findings will be reported in compliance with the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) [ 68 ].

Objective and review questions to guide study design

The objective of this review is to systematically determine if food literacy interventions have an impact on improving food literacy and healthy eating behavior among different socioeconomic groups living in high-income countries.

The main review question for this inquiry has been formulated as follows:

Primary review question

Are food literacy interventions effective in improving food literacy behavior and healthy eating across different socioeconomic groups?

Secondary review questions

Are food literacy interventions effective in improving food literacy behavior?

Are food literacy interventions effective in improving healthy eating behavior?

Which components within food literacy interventions are effective in improving food literacy behavior and healthy eating behavior?

Does the effectiveness of food literacy interventions vary across different socioeconomic groups?

What are the characteristics of effective food literacy interventions?

Inclusion criteria

1. participants.

Studies conducted on adults (18 years and older) of any sex or gender residing in high-income countries will be included in the review.

As this scoping review primarily focuses on the application (intervention) part of food literacy, the evidence of various food literacy interventions will be considered. Food literacy interventions can vary in design, approach, target population, time frame, outcome evaluation, theoretical model, and food literacy domains [ 72 ]). To select appropriate interventions, an established food literacy model will guide this review.

Food literacy has been defined in various ways by researchers attempting to give meaning to the emerging concept [ 19 ]. During the initial stage of conceptualizing the idea of FL, researchers perceived it as a compilation of nutritional knowledge and mechanical techniques for preparing food [ 36 , 46 ]. Newer understandings of the subject have included the necessary knowledge, personal abilities, psychological traits (such as confidence, self-efficacy, and resilience), capabilities, and actions involved in the planning, selection, and preparation of food [ 10 , 19 , 21 , 73 ]. It is worth mentioning, that among all definitions, the most cited definition is by [ 73 ], p. 54), according to a recent systematic review [ 66 ]. [ 73 ] defined FL as “the scaffolding that empowers individuals, households, communities or nations to protect diet quality through change and strengthen dietary resilience over time. It is composed of a collection of inter-related knowledge, skills and behaviours required to plan, manage, select, prepare and eat food to meet needs and determine intake”. The definition that has been presented lays the foundation for subsequent definitions that have sought to elaborate on the concept. It is worth noting that these subsequent definitions have not sought to challenge the central tenets of the original definition, but rather to build upon them. As such, this review will adopt and work within the framework of this original definition, which serves as a key reference point for further exploration of the concept.

Also, Vidgen and Gallegos [ 73 ], proposed a conceptual model for food literacy that goes beyond the basic definition. This model was developed based on primary research and the original definition. Its purpose is to illustrate their perspective on food literacy. The model consists of four domains: planning and management, selection, preparation, and consumption of food (Table 1 ). These domains comprise a total of eleven food-related activities, referred to as “components” [ 73 ]. All interventions that align with the knowledge, skills, and behavior associated with these four domains will be included in this review. Table 1 below presents the four domains of the food literacy model.

Papers will include only interventions that have been implemented in high-income countries. Most high-income countries are also considered countries with the highest human development index (HDI) [ 80 ]. HDI, as defined by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), is a comprehensive indicator that assesses the overall attainment of human development in crucial areas such as standard of living, educational attainment, and life expectancy [ 70 ]. The importance of focusing on high-income countries cannot be overstated due to the differences in the way how healthy eating behaviors are perceived across various nations, as highlighted by [ 49 ] . Furthermore, there are significant disparities in the food environment between low and high-income countries [ 69 ]. Therefore, it is imperative to take into account these variations when considering policies and strategies aimed at improving dietary patterns and nutrition-related outcomes.

4. Types of sources

This scoping review will include various types of studies published only in peer-reviewed journals, including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method designs. This may consist of systematic reviews, observational non-experimental studies, experimental studies, and case studies.

5. Types of interventions

The main focus of this review will be on scholarly papers that explicitly and accurately discuss food literacy intervention, utilizing the terms “food literacy intervention” or “food literacy program”. By limiting the scope to articles that use these specific terms, is aimed to provide a more comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the research in this field.

(1) Eligibility criteria

The emphasis of this review is largely placed on the intervention aspect of food literacy. Therefore, maximum data related to intervention will be extracted. In doing so, those studied will only be included which are (1) peer-reviewed, (2) studied on humans, (3) studied in high-income countries, (4) described a food literacy intervention implemented on adults aged 18 years or above, (6) published from 2001 to 2022 (7) published or translated in English.

(2) Search strategy

To visualize the search plan, four main theoretical constructs related to the research question were identified first (presented in Fig. 1 ).

Visual presentation of search adaptation

As recommended in all JBI types of reviews, a three-step search strategy was developed by all three authors, along with the consultation of an academic librarian.

On July 5, 2023, an initial search was carried out on MEDLINE (via EBSCOhost), Cochrane Library, and OSFHOME (Open Science Framework) databases using the keywords “food literacy,” “intervention,” “adults,” “healthy eating,” and “socioeconomic position. No systematic review was found to be registered on any platform that sufficiently addressed the research question of this study. However, the initial search also revealed significant limitations in the search strategy.

Many articles in the database used these search terms in a different context than intended. For example, the phrase “healthy eating” has multiple meanings and has been used in various contexts. In addition, no empirical study has explored the connection between food literacy and socioeconomic position till now. As a result, relying solely on the above-mentioned keywords either failed to yield related materials that did not explicitly use the search term or returned irrelevant materials.

As such, the search strategy was adjusted to include only the keywords “food literacy” “intervention” and “adults”, along with the index terms used to describe these three constructs as identified in the titles/abstracts of articles from the initial search. The extraction of socioeconomic factors and any indication of healthy eating behavior (dietary behavior) will be carried out manually. A trial of search, using the preferred keywords and the index terms used in each database is shown in Appendix  1 .

The second search using the modified search strategy will be run in three electronic databases (MEDLINE (via EBSCOhost), Scopus, and CINHAL) by AM in November 2023.

To ensure the completeness of the search process, both forward and backward citation searches will be performed(QUT Library Guide, 2023).

After each search, all identified citations will be gathered and uploaded to the referencing software EndNote 20. Duplicates will then be removed before exporting the citations to Covidence, a screening and data extraction tool will be used in systematic reviews ( https://www.covidence.org/ ).

(3) Study selection

Integrating different types of studies.

The review will encompass diverse types of studies to gain a better understanding of multifaceted phenomena. These will include quantitative studies, which measure the effects of food literacy interventions, qualitative studies that focus on the experiences of those who attended any food literacy program, and mixed methods studies that combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

While reviewing quantitative studies, trials of food literacy programs/interventions that aimed to promote food literacy behavior and healthy eating will be looked at. The analysis for the trials will involve a thorough examination of the pre- and post-data on the outcomes that were reported, along with that of a comparable control or comparison group.

The aim of reviewing qualitative studies is to explore adults' perspectives and experiences of attending food literacy programs. The focus is on identifying what attendees have reported experiencing as a result of participating in these programs. Initial reviews of the available literature indicate that attendees of such programs have reported positive changes in their food habits, including eating more fruits and vegetables, gaining confidence in cooking, using healthier ingredients, adopting appropriate cooking methods, substituting ingredients with less expensive options, making informed decisions when selecting food items, and stretching their meal budgets [ 13 , 76 ].

Process of selection

All authors (AM/HV/DG) will conduct a pilot test by screening the title and abstract of 10% of the articles randomly selected from the pool of the saved articles in Covidence against the inclusion criteria. Once a consensus is reached, the first author (AM) will screen the title and abstract of the remaining articles. The exact process will be followed for assessing articles in full text. After reaching an agreement, the first author will retrieve the full text of the primarily selected citations and assess them in detail against all the inclusion criteria, including language, participants, geography, and intervention. Another reviewer (HV) will repeat this process independently. Any disputes will be resolved by consensus or with the involvement of a third reviewer. Finally, the scoping review will include all the publications that meet the eligibility criteria.

(4) Evaluation of food literacy intervention

Although previous systematic reviews of food literacy interventions expose the inadequacy of the evaluation method, it is still crucial to assess the effectiveness of the interventions through post-program follow-up evaluations [ 9 ]. It is also important to select an appropriate evaluation design that corresponds to the level of development when assessing a program. This review will follow three main types of evaluation methods: process, outcome, and impact evaluation [ 32 , 55 ].

The method of process evaluation is used to determine if program activities have been executed according to plan and if they have resulted in specific outputs [ 32 ]. The relationship between impact and outcome can be explained as follows: outcome is the goal of any project (intervention), while impact is the objective. To clarify, the outcome is characterized by the desired changes in targeted health behavior that are sustained over a long period of time. Impact evaluation provides information about the observed changes or “impacts” produced by the intervention [ 32 ]. For instance, when implementing a food literacy program for adults, the objective is to improve their food literacy behavior, resulting in a sustained improvement in their dietary behavior, which is the ultimate goal or outcome [ 5 , 6 ]. As such, for this scoping review, the impact is the modification in food literacy behavior, and the outcome is the modification in eating behavior. How the data for process, impact, and outcome evaluation will be extracted is described in the coming paragraphs.

Furthermore, the assessment method is consistent with Vidgen’s ([ 72 ], p. 75) “second model of food literacy”, which is illustrated in Fig. 2 below. This model not only illustrates the connection between food literacy and nutrition but also provides guidance for process, outcome, and impact evaluations in an ideal food literacy intervention. The insights gained from these evaluations can be applied to improve the development and execution of future interventions [ 72 ], p. 81). Hence, this model will guide the evaluation process.

Second model of food literacy, depicting the relation between food literacy and nutrition . Note: Adapted from Food Literacy: What Is It And Does It Influence What We Eat? by [ 72 ], p. 75

Below is an outline of how three types of evaluation will be implemented when reviewing various interventions.

Process/implementation evaluation

The 11 components of food literacy may serve as a framework for the process evaluation of a food literacy intervention, as suggested by [ 72 ], p. 81. Some of the constructs that will be investigated under the “process evaluation category” are which components of food literacy were addressed in the program, how the programs were designed, the percentage of adult participants, the records of their socioeconomic and sociodemographic characteristics, if the program’s effectiveness was measured according to attendee feedback, and what were the barriers/facilitators to implementation of program activities (Table 2 ).

Impact evaluation

To ensure food literacy is held accountable for driving healthy eating practices, it is essential to measure the impact of food literacy intervention on health outcomes [ 27 ]. In regard to that, Vidgen [ 72 ] proposed analyzing the constructs of “certainty”, “choice”, and “pleasure” (Fig. 2 ) is crucial in determining the impact of a food literacy intervention. For instance, a food literacy program can have a positive “impact” by increasing “pleasure” in cooking or by providing more “choices” in selecting healthy and affordable food from the local food environment. Therefore, to evaluate the impact of food literacy intervention, this paper will gather data on changes reported in various components of food literacy. These components include planning food intake (under the domain of planning, in component 1.1), reducing consumption of fast food and sugary drinks (under the domain of eating, in component 4.2), and increasing self-reported cooking skills (under the domain of preparation, in component 3.1).

These outcomes are indicative of the successful implementation of food literacy intervention and can guide future development [ 6 ] (Table 3 ).

Outcome evaluation

This review aims to determine any enduring effects on eating/dietary behavior after the delivery of a food literacy program as “outcome evaluation”. In a prior study [ 5 ], a comparable methodology was employed to assess the impact of food literacy by tracking modification in dietary behavior, which was deemed a critical metric for measuring outcomes of food literacy interventions. Next, there is a discussion of what is meant by “eating behavior” and the method that will be utilized to track any changes in such behavior.

The concepts of “eating behavior” and its related terms, including “dietary behavior”, “dietary intake”, “eating habits”, “diet”, and “food choice”, are broad and ambiguous ideas, and these terms are used interchangeably in various academic fields [ 42 ]. In general, the term ‘eating behavior” or “dietary behavior” is a conclusive idea that encompasses all the factors related to food consumption, including diet quality, food preferences and motives, eating patterns, and diet-related chronic diseases [ 37 , 60 ]. For this paper, the term “eating behavior” will be used consistently to refer to all the above-mentioned concepts.

There are different ways to measure different aspects of healthy eating behavior. In the field of dietary behavior research, self-reported measures, such as 24-h dietary recalls, food records/diaries, and food frequency questionnaires (FFQ), are commonly employed to collect data [ 53 ]. This is because it is generally not possible to objectively assess the usual dietary intake in community-dwelling individuals [ 35 ]. Hence, as measures for dietary behavior, this review will include previous studies that have reported dietary outcomes through self-reported measures along with other measures.

This review will rely on a range of measures, including the following:

Measures of diet quality: Diet Quality Indices (DQIs) serves as tools for assessing an individual’s overall diet quality. These scores food and/or nutrition intakes and sometimes lifestyle factors based on how closely they align with dietary guidelines [ 77 ]. Examples of DQIs are the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), the Diet Quality Index (DQI), the Healthy Diet Indicator (HDI), the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS [ 25 , 75 ], and Single-item self-rated diet measure (SRD) [ 23 ].

Dietary intake indicator: e.g., the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS; measures food accessibility and socioeconomic status based on types and quantity of food consumed in 24 h [ 34 ] (Table 4 ).

(5) Data extraction

The lead researcher will extract the content of each study independently. The extracted findings then be shared with the supervisory team for approval. In the event of any conflicts, they will be resolved through discussion. The data extraction matrix will be revised and may be modified if required during the process.

Following the protocol, the data extraction matrix (an Excel sheet) will summarise the data under four main headings: (1) description of studies, (2) process evaluation, (3) impact evaluation, and (4) outcome evaluation. Under these four headings, all the single constructs will be assessed. Those constructs are listed below. An example of a data extraction matrix is attached in Appendix  3 .

Study details: (1) author, (2) study location, (3) sample size, (4) study design, (5) theoretical framework applied, (6) year of publication of the study results, (7) published in a journal

Population details : (8) socioeconomic characteristics of the target group (high and low socioeconomic group, description of socioeconomic factors, such as income, education, occupation), (9) sociodemographic characteristics of the target group

Intervention details (10) Name of the intervention (food literacy program), (11) components of the intervention (e.g., the components of food literacy addressed), (11) duration of the interventions, (12) measurement tool (e,g., food literacy scale, food literacy questionnaire, & FFQ),

Impact details : (13) report of changes in food literacy behaviour, (14) measurement tool, (15) findings

Outcome details : (16) report of changes in dietary behaviour, (17) measurement tool, (18) findings

(6)Assessment of risk bias : study appraisal

To evaluate the quantitative aspects of the articles, the JBI critical appraisal checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies, which is an eight-item questionnaire, will be employed (The Joanna Briggs [ 63 ]. Meanwhile, for the qualitative studies, the ‘Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Studies (COREQ), which consists of 23 questions, will be used [ 67 ].

(7) Analyse and synthesize the evidence

Synthesis of qualitative papers.

After extracting the data, the information extracted from each paper, including study details, population details, intervention, impact, and outcome details, will be utilized to create evidence tables providing an overall description of the included studies.

Subsequently, two team members (AM and HV) will independently analyze the extracted data based on those predetermined categories.

Qualitative papers will be subjected to thematic analysis, as described by Braun and Clarke [ 11 ]. The thematic analysis aims to identify significant data patterns (“themes”) and establish a visual network and conceptual connections among these themes to address the primary and secondary research questions specific to this systematic review. During this process, both reviewers (AM and HV) will independently conduct line-by-line coding from the findings of the selected studies to identify recurring, unique, and contradictory content. These codes will then be utilized to form themes and a series of sub-themes [ 65 ]. The reviewers will utilize computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) such as NVivo to assist in this step. While the researcher creates the codes, NVivo can help with sorting, labeling, and organizing the codes (referred to as “nodes” in NVivo) and the data (Dhakal, 2022,NVivo, 2023). As thematic analysis is a comprehensive process, the reviewing team will convene for multiple meetings to arrive at consensus decisions. Investigator triangulation will be employed during this process, with two or more researchers involved, to mitigate personal bias and ensure the inclusion of diverse perspectives [ 15 ].

Synthesis of quantitative papers

Due to the inherent nature of systematic reviews, it is anticipated that this systematic review will encompass a wide range of quantitative studies characterized by diversity in the intervention (including duration and delivery model), study design (e.g., cross-sectional and longitudinal cohort), study participants (e.g., physical condition, age, gender, and location), and the outcomes/effects (varied measurement methods and durations). This variability is commonly referred to as "heterogeneity" in research [ 17 , 31 ]. As heterogeneity is expected, this review will use a meta-analytical method to combine study estimates and obtain a summary estimate(e.g., mean differences, standardized mean difference, and its 95% confidence interval) [ 54 ]. The most appropriate approach for the meta-analysis in this case is a random-effects meta-analysis, which will effectively assess the variations in the effects of different interventions [ 54 ]. In addition, Forest plots will be used for visual examination of heterogeneity [ 31 ]. To assess the degree of heterogeneity statistically, three measures will be employed: (1) Cochran’s Q to evaluate whether the proportion of successes is consistent across groups, (2) Higgin’s and Thompson’s I 2 to assess the percentage of variability in effect sizes not caused by sampling error [ 30 ], and (3) Tau-squared to estimate the variance of the underlying distribution of true effect sizes [ 29 ].

The results from both the quantitative and qualitative synthesis will be integrated to produce the final synthesis that will help gain a comprehensive understanding of how different aspects of the research relate to one another. The qualitative papers will be analyzed to develop a set of recommendations for interventions that are in line with the perspectives of adult attendees. These recommendations will then be utilized to evaluate the interventions analyzed through quantitative synthesis to determine the level of alignment between the interventions and our recommendations [ 28 , 52 ].

(8) Report the findings

The findings of this review are intended for publication in a scholarly journal that focuses on public health or nutrition science. Additionally, the result may be shared through other networks, such as conferences. As a part of an effort to ensure data transparency and accessibility, all data resulting from this review will be uploaded to the Queensland University of Technology’s repository. The reviewers wish for the significant findings to be widely and readily available to those who can benefit from this research.

(9) Strengths and limitations

This will be the first review to synthesize evidence on the link between food literacy and socioeconomic position and healthy eating.

The results will aid in comprehending whether previous food literacy interventions have effectively assisted individuals belonging to low-socioeconomic groups in adopting healthy eating habits.

There is a lack of studies that have evaluated post-program analysis of food literacy intervention, specifically in relation to the food literacy domains or the three levels of food literacy outcome.

It is possible that some interventions aimed at improving food literacy behavior may be missed due to the fact that not all studies use the term “food literacy” directly and instead focus on enhancing specific components related to it.

It is important to note that the review will have some limitations regarding bias. Specifically, certain countries, papers written in languages other than English, and specific population groups were intentionally excluded. As a result, the selection process was significantly biased. The decisions have been taken to make sure that the review's scope is narrowed down and relevant information is gathered. In the upcoming reviews, it would be advantageous to examine literature from low- to middle-income nations and also to involve children and elderly individuals who have firsthand experience with attending a food literacy program.

Availability of data and materials

This article does not involve data sharing since no datasets were produced or examined in the present study.

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Money blog: 'The Sainsbury's method' - Fake voucher trend sees supermarket call in police

Sainsbury's has called in police after becoming the subject of a TikTok fraudulent voucher trend. Scroll through the Money blog for this and other personal finance and consumer news/tips, and leave a comment on anything we're covering below.

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"It tastes like burning," according to one reviewer. 

Beithir Fire is a 75% ABV beer brewed in Scotland that comes with a warning label and (for one 330ml bottle) a £45.95 price tag.

The cost takes into account that it takes more than three months to produce. 

As well as purporting to be the world's strongest beer, 88 Brewery also claims it's "the only beer with a 100-year shelf life".

TikToker Dan from  @1minutebeerreview  tasted just 35ml of the fiery beverage - the most the brewery recommends you consume at one time. 

His thoughts? 

"That's really strong. It tastes like burning. My tongue is now numb... I need to go lie down."

Asda says it has started selling refurbished TVs in some of its stores - becoming the first UK supermarket to do so.

The retailer said customers in a handful of locations in England and Scotland are able to get their hands on three models of returned TVs from as little as £100.

The 32-inch, 40-inch and 50-inch TVs are being refurbished at Asda's electrical returns centre using recycled materials and come re-packaged to make clear they are refurbished models, it said.

These are the models available: 

• PLRD Combi TV 32-inch - £100 (RRP £149) - saving of £49
• Sharp Smart TV 40-inch - £130 (RRP £190) - saving of £60
• PLRD Smart Fire TV 50-inch - £160 (£240) - saving of £80

Customers in Folkestone, Leeds, Glasgow, Sunderland and Ellesmere Port are able to purchase one of the TVs as part of a trial by Asda to increase the longevity of its returned products.

By James Sillars , business reporter

Quite a few companies are reporting positive results in London this morning.

However, the FTSE 100 is trading further down in what has been a tough week for global stock markets.

The main drag has been renewed fears of a US recession, while major tech stocks suffered some intense bleeding on profit taking on Tuesday amid a school of thought they are overvalued.

Leading the way on the FTSE this morning was housebuilder Vistry – up by more than 2%.

The company revealed a 7% rise in half-year profits despite the affordability challenges facing the sector and a share buyback worth £130m.

In the wider market, Asos, the fast fashion firm, saw its shares climb more than 12% after it reported that annual profits were expected to come in at the top of market expectations, despite continued struggles for sales.

The electricals retailer Currys saw its stock drop by 0.5% despite a 2% lift in underlying sales over the last four months, putting it on track to grow profit this year.

Aldi has again pipped rival Lidl to be crowned cheapest supermarket in August.

Which? said a basket of 62 items at the budget retailer cost £110.58 on average across the month.

Lidl came just behind at £111.88 for the same items with Lidl Plus loyalty pricing, and £112.17 without.

At the other end of the spectrum, Waitrose was named the priciest for the average shop, with its 62-item basket costing £140.89  - £30.31 (27%) more than Aldi.

The basket included a range of branded and non-branded items, including Heinz baked beans, Hovis bread, milk and butter.

Which?'s monthly analysis compares the average prices of popular groceries at eight of the UK's biggest stores.

From yesterday Barclays customers with Blue Rewards current accounts will no longer get a free £5 added to their balance every month. Customers may be reluctant to leave due to other perks such as free Apple TV, access to MLS matches, cashback incentives with major retailers and, perhaps most crucially, the 5.12% rate in their Rainy Day Saver.

For this week's Savings Guide, we asked  Savings Champion co-founder Anna Bowes to look at what else is out there in the easy access accounts market.

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"One of the more popular tricks of the trade is to offer an account that is exclusive to those who hold, or open, a current account with the bank - just like Barclays.

"Added to that there may be a restriction on the deposit that will earn this top rate - so, with Barclays, it's £5,000.

"Another example is Santander's Edge Saver Account (Issue 2), which is paying a whopping 6% AER, but this rate includes a 12-month bonus of 1.5% AER and the maximum you can deposit and earn interest on is £4,000. Anything over this balance will earn zero interest, so the overall rate you earn will be diluted if the balance exceeds £4,000."

The rewards that come with the Santander account include cashback on household bills worth up to £10 a month, a similar offer with retailers, and no charges for using your card abroad.

As discussed, Barclays Blue Rewards comes with other perks too. 

Anna says: "It's important to check they are perks that you will benefit from before signing up just to have access to an account.

"The bottom line is that some accounts may look head and shoulders above the rest of the market, but there will usually be a reason that they are able to offer such a rate. So it's important to read the small print to make sure you will earn what you expect."

Here's a look at what's out there...

By Jess Sharp , Money team

Sainsbury's has started working with police after noticing an increase in the number of fraudulent vouchers being used in its stores. 

The supermarket has recently become the subject of a TikTok trend called "the Sainsbury's method". 

Videos using the term have been posted on the social media platform showing people scanning a coupon several times at the checkout to get money off their shop. 

In one clip, a customer gets into an altercation with a shop worker who tries to stop them using the voucher. 

This video has since been removed from TikTok. 

In another, a person brags about getting shopping worth more than £400 for £6. 

Several videos also encourage viewers to join Discord servers to be sent the reusable voucher.

Other clips have warned people about the risks of using the coupon. 

We've also seen similar messages appearing on X, with people sharing images showing lots of products supposedly bought with the voucher.

In some instances, they have offered to sell others the coupon. 

Sainsbury's told the Money team it had seen an "increase in fraudulent coupons" being used and that there were processes in place to detect and block them. 

In-store detectives have also been tasked with monitoring false attempts, and the supermarket is working with police forces on the issue. 

"We continue to accept genuine coupons and vouchers," a spokesperson said. 

We contacted a number of other supermarkets that use a voucher system to see if they had experienced a similar problem. 

Morrisons told the Money team it was not experiencing any issues. 

We also understand that Asda already has security measures in place. 

Its rewards scheme is app based, with customers getting a unique one-time barcode linked to their account, rather than the same voucher code issued to each person. 

Customers have also been encouraged to be careful before clicking or entering anything online that isn't connected to an official Asda account or an official Asda website.

Tesco did not respond to our requests for comment. 

More landlords are selling up in London, with the number of buy-to-let properties up for sale hitting a 10-year-high. 

Analytics company TwentyCi found 22% of all newly listed homes in July had been available to rent in the last 10 years. 

This compares with 15.6% in July 2023. 

Across the rest of the UK, the number of landlords selling their properties was significantly lower at 9%. 

Chief executive of TwentyCi, Colin Bradshaw, said fears of a capital gains tax increase was one of the reasons for the landlord exodus. 

Capital gains tax is a levy on any profit you make when you sell or "dispose of" an asset, such as shares or a second home.

The amount you can earn in profit before paying capital gains tax is currently £3,000. 

Mr Bradshaw said another factor was expected measures such as the requirement for a minimum emissions rating for rented properties by 2030.

HM Revenue and Customs Data shows private landlords' income fell by 4% from £49.4bn in 2020-21 to £47.44bn in 2022-23. 

One of the biggest falls in income was in London at 12.5%, followed by Scotland at 6.9%. 

Oasis have announced two extra Wembley Stadium shows after their tour sold out over the weekend.

Both Liam and Noel Gallagher, as well as Ticketmaster, came under fire over the initial release - as fans spent hours in virtual queues, and some tickets ended up costing more than three times as much due to surge ticket pricing. The government has launched a review into the practice after the backlash.

Announcing two further dates at Wembley Stadium in September next year, Oasis said there would be a staggered "special invitation-only ballot ticket sale strategy", devised "as a small step towards making amends for the situation".

They said it needed "to be made clear" that the band "leave decisions on ticketing and pricing entirely to their promoters and management, and at no time had any awareness that dynamic pricing was going to be used".

Applications to join the ballot for the September shows will be opened first to fans who were unsuccessful in the initial sale.

The band added: "Inevitably interest in this tour is so overwhelming that it's impossible to schedule enough shows to fulfil public demand," the band's statement continued. "But this ticket sale strategy will make the process far smoother for fans by reducing the stress and time it takes to obtain one of the hottest tickets of our time."

Read more on this story here:

Councils have called on the government to end the Right to Buy scheme for new council homes. 

One hundred local councils have warned the financial model for council housing finances is "broken", with a £2.2bn "black hole" in councils' dedicated budgets expected by 2028.

The councils have called for a complete overhaul of the Right to Buy scheme introduced by Margaret Thatcher in 1980 that allows council tenants to buy their council homes at reduced rates.

Deputy Prime Minister Angela Rayner, who  bought her council house through Right to Buy in 2007 , announced at the end of July the government had started to review increased discounts introduced by the former Conservative government in 2012 and will begin a consultation into the whole scheme this autumn.

Only 4% of homes bought under Right to Buy have been replaced, according to charity Shelter, while an estimated 43% of households living in private rented accommodation and receiving housing benefits are in homes bought under Right to Buy.

Read the full story here ...

Boohoo has caused upset among its loyal customers after cancelling accounts and charging them for returns. 

The online retailer has reportedly started closing some premier accounts due to "unusually high returns activity". 

Earlier this year, it started charging premier customers £1.99 for returns - but many shoppers have complained that they were not informed. 

At the moment, a premier subscription costs £7.99 a year, but it usually costs £12.99. 

Subscribers get unlimited next day delivery, paperless returns and access to exclusive discounts. 

Up until the changes, they were also able to return their items free of charge. 

One X user said she was "disgusted" after Boohoo deactivated her account. 

"Because I order multiple outfits for holidays and night outs or (because your sizes are all over the place) I order two sizes of most things... and because I don't keep everything and send them back, you deactivate my account," she said. 

"I've been a customer for 12 years. Disgusting." 

She wasn't the only one feeling that way... 

Others said they would stop shopping at the retailer altogether. 

The Money team looked through the Premier T&Cs - and it does not mention a limit on the number of returns that can be made, or returns at all. 

But, it does state that the company can terminate accounts at its discretion. 

"We may decide to terminate your Boohoo Premier account and you will be given a prorated refund based on the number of whole months remaining in your membership," it states.

"We will not give any refund for termination related to conduct that we determine, in our discretion, violates these terms or any applicable law, involves fraud or misuse, or is harmful to Boohoo's interests or another user." 

Boohoo isn't the online retailer to make this move. 

Earlier this year, PrettyLittleThing, which is owned by Boohoo, introduced a returns fee and started cancelling accounts that sent back several items. 

Consumer expert Helen Dewdney from The Complaining Cow said there was a growing trend of companies doing this, explaining that returns can be costly for those with small profit margins. 

"If a customer is costing a company more by returning more than they are keeping, then it is perhaps understandable why they are having their account closed," she said. 

But, she noted that where a company has offered unlimited free returns for a fee, without detailing any limits, then this could be considered as "very unfair and misleading".

"Under the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 there is a fairness test," she added. 

"For a practice to be unfair under these rules, they must harm, or be likely to harm, the economic interests of the average consumer. 

"It could be considered that paying to have unlimited returns was part of the purchasing decision. Boohoo should be clearer in their terms and conditions as regards what the limit is, and should certainly be refunding the fee to anyone who has had their account closed." 

A spokesperson for Boohoo told Money: "We are committed to providing our customers with easy access to our products and upholding a fair return policy.

"However, like many other online fashion brands, it is important that we balance this with our responsibility to discourage repeat returners, which incur a cost for both the business and the environment."

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