what is the importance of research in life

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Importance Of Research In Daily Life

Whether we are students, professionals, or stay-at-home parents, we all need to do research on a daily basis.

The reason?

Research helps us make informed decisions.

It allows us to learn about new things, and it teaches us how to think critically.

There is an importance of research in daily life.

Let’s discuss the importance of research in our daily lives and how it can help us achieve our goals!

6 ways research plays an important role in our daily lives.

• It leads to new discoveries and innovations that improve our lives. Many of the technologies we rely on today are the result of research in fields like medicine, computer science, engineering, etc. Things like smartphones, wifi, GPS, and medical treatments were made possible by research.
• It informs policy making. Research provides data and evidence that allows policymakers to make more informed decisions on issues that impact society, whether it’s related to health, education, the economy, or other areas. Research gives insights into problems.
• It spreads knowledge and awareness. The research contributes new information and facts to various fields and disciplines. The sharing of research educates people on new topics, ideas, social issues, etc. It provides context for understanding the world.
• It drives progress and change. Research challenges existing notions, tests new theories and hypotheses, and pushes boundaries of what’s known. Pushing the frontiers of knowledge through research is key for advancement. Even when research invalidates ideas, it leads to progress.
• It develops critical thinking skills. The research process itself – asking questions, collecting data, analyzing results, drawing conclusions – builds logic, problem-solving, and cognitive skills that benefit individuals in their professional and personal lives.
• It fuels innovation and the economy. Research leads to the development of new products and services that create jobs and improve productivity in the marketplace. Private sector research drives economic growth.

So while not always visible, research underlies much of our technological, social, economic, and human progress. It’s a building block for society.

Conducting quality research and using it to maximum benefit is key.

Research is important in everyday life because it allows us to make informed decisions about the things that matter most to us.

Whether we’re researching a new car before making a purchase, studying for an important test, or looking into different treatment options for a health issue, research allows us to get the facts and make the best choices for ourselves and our families.

• In today’s world, there’s so much information available at our fingertips, and research is more accessible than ever.
• The internet has made it possible for anyone with an interest in doing research to access vast amounts of information in a short amount of time.

This is both a blessing and a curse; while it’s great that we have so much information available to us, it can be overwhelming to try to sort through everything and find the most reliable sources.

What is the importance of research in our daily life?

Research is essential to our daily lives.

• It helps us to make informed decisions about everything from the food we eat to the medicines we take.
• It also allows us to better understand the world around us and find solutions to problems.

In short, research is essential for our health, safety, and well-being. Without it, we would be living in a world of ignorance and misinformation.

What is the importance of research in our daily lives as a student?

As a student, research plays an important role in our daily life. It helps us to gain knowledge and understanding of the world around us.

• It also allows us to develop new skills and perspectives.
• In addition, research helps us to innovate and create new things. 
• Research is essential for students because it helps us to learn about the world around us. Without research, we would be limited to our own personal experiences and observations.
• Research allows us to go beyond our personal bubble and explore new ideas and concepts.
• It also gives us the opportunity to develop new skills and perspectives. 
• In addition, research is important because it helps us to innovate and create new things. When we conduct research , we are constantly learning new information that can be used to create something new.

This could be anything from a new product or service to a new way of doing things.

Research is essential for students because it allows us to be innovative and create new things that can make a difference in the world.

Consequently, while each person’s daily life routine might differ based on their unique circumstances, the role that research plays in our lives as students is an integral one nonetheless.

Different though our routines might be, the value of research in our lives shines through brightly regardless.  And that importance cannot be overstated .

How does research affect your daily life?

Every day, we benefit from the countless hours of research that have been conducted by scientists and scholars around the world.

• From the moment we wake up in the morning to the time we go to bed at night, we rely on research to improve our lives in a variety of ways.
• For instance, many of the items we use every day, such as our phones and laptops, are the result of years of research and development.
• And when we see a news story about a new medical breakthrough or a natural disaster, it is often the result of research that has been conducted over a long period of time.

In short, research affects our daily lives in countless ways, both big and small. Without it, we would be living in a very different world.

What are the purposes of research?

The word “research” is used in a variety of ways. In its broadest sense, research includes any gathering of data, information, and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

Whether you are looking for a new recipe or trying to find a cure for cancer, the process of research is the same.

You start with a question or an area of interest and then use different sources to find information that will help you answer that question or learn more about that topic.

“The purpose of research is to find answers to questions, solve problems, or develop new knowledge.”

It is an essential tool in business , education, science, and many other fields. By conducting research, we can learn about the world around us and make it a better place.

How to do effective research 

Research is a process of uncovering facts and information about a subject.

It is usually done when preparing for an assignment or project and can be either primary research, which involves collecting data yourself, or secondary research, which involves finding existing data.

Regardless of the type of research you do, there are some effective strategies that will help you get the most out of your efforts:

• First, start by clearly defining your topic and what you hope to learn. This will help you to focus your search and find relevant information more quickly.
• Once you know what you’re looking for, try using keyword searches to find websites, articles, and other resources that are relevant to your topic.
• When evaluating each source, be sure to consider its reliability and biases.
• Finally, take good notes as you read, and make sure to keep track of where each piece of information came from so that you can easily cite it later.

By following these steps, you can ensure that your research is both thorough and accurate.

How to use research to achieve your goals.

Achieving your goals requires careful planning and a lot of hard work.

But even the best-laid plans can sometimes go awry.

That’s where research comes in.

By taking the time to do your homework, you can increase your chances of success while also learning more about your topic of interest.

When it comes to goal-setting, research can help you to identify realistic targets and develop a roadmap for achieving them.

It can also provide valuable insights into potential obstacles and how to overcome them.

In short, research is an essential tool for anyone who wants to achieve their goals.

So if you’re serious about reaching your target, be sure to do your homework first.

So the next time you are faced with a decision, don’t forget to do your research!

It could very well be the most important thing you do all day.

Jacks of Science sources the most authoritative, trustworthy, and highly recognized institutions for our article research. Learn more about our Editorial Teams process and diligence in verifying the accuracy of every article we publish.

What Is the Importance of Research? 5 Reasons Why Research is Critical

by Logan Bessant | Nov 16, 2021 | Science

Most of us appreciate that research is a crucial part of medical advancement. But what exactly is the importance of research? In short, it is critical in the development of new medicines as well as ensuring that existing treatments are used to their full potential. 

Research can bridge knowledge gaps and change the way healthcare practitioners work by providing solutions to previously unknown questions.

In this post, we’ll discuss the importance of research and its impact on medical breakthroughs.  

The Importance Of Health Research

The purpose of studying is to gather information and evidence, inform actions, and contribute to the overall knowledge of a certain field. None of this is possible without research. 

Understanding how to conduct research and the importance of it may seem like a very simple idea to some, but in reality, it’s more than conducting a quick browser search and reading a few chapters in a textbook. 

No matter what career field you are in, there is always more to learn. Even for people who hold a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in their field of study, there is always some sort of unknown that can be researched. Delving into this unlocks the unknowns, letting you explore the world from different perspectives and fueling a deeper understanding of how the universe works.

To make things a little more specific, this concept can be clearly applied in any healthcare scenario. Health research has an incredibly high value to society as it provides important information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatments, patterns of care, and health care costs and use. All of these factors as well as many more are usually researched through a clinical trial. 

What Is The Importance Of Clinical Research?

Clinical trials are a type of research that provides information about a new test or treatment. They are usually carried out to find out what, or if, there are any effects of these procedures or drugs on the human body. 

All legitimate clinical trials are carefully designed, reviewed and completed, and need to be approved by professionals before they can begin. They also play a vital part in the advancement of medical research including:

• Providing new and good information on which types of drugs are more effective.  
• Bringing new treatments such as medicines, vaccines and devices into the field. 
• Testing the safety and efficacy of a new drug before it is brought to market and used in clinical practice.
• Giving the opportunity for more effective treatments to benefit millions of lives both now and in the future. 
• Enhancing health, lengthening life, and reducing the burdens of illness and disability. 

This all plays back to clinical research as it opens doors to advancing prevention, as well as providing treatments and cures for diseases and disabilities. Clinical trial volunteer participants are essential to this progress which further supports the need for the importance of research to be well-known amongst healthcare professionals, students and the general public. 

Five Reasons Why Research is Critical

Research is vital for almost everyone irrespective of their career field. From doctors to lawyers to students to scientists, research is the key to better work. 

• Increases quality of life

 Research is the backbone of any major scientific or medical breakthrough. None of the advanced treatments or life-saving discoveries used to treat patients today would be available if it wasn’t for the detailed and intricate work carried out by scientists, doctors and healthcare professionals over the past decade. 

This improves quality of life because it can help us find out important facts connected to the researched subject. For example, universities across the globe are now studying a wide variety of things from how technology can help breed healthier livestock, to how dance can provide long-term benefits to people living with Parkinson’s. 

For both of these studies, quality of life is improved. Farmers can use technology to breed healthier livestock which in turn provides them with a better turnover, and people who suffer from Parkinson’s disease can find a way to reduce their symptoms and ease their stress. 

Research is a catalyst for solving the world’s most pressing issues. Even though the complexity of these issues evolves over time, they always provide a glimmer of hope to improving lives and making processes simpler. 

• Builds up credibility 

People are willing to listen and trust someone with new information on one condition – it’s backed up. And that’s exactly where research comes in. Conducting studies on new and unfamiliar subjects, and achieving the desired or expected outcome, can help people accept the unknown.

However, this goes without saying that your research should be focused on the best sources. It is easy for people to poke holes in your findings if your studies have not been carried out correctly, or there is no reliable data to back them up. 

This way once you have done completed your research, you can speak with confidence about your findings within your field of study. 

• Drives progress forward 

It is with thanks to scientific research that many diseases once thought incurable, now have treatments. For example, before the 1930s, anyone who contracted a bacterial infection had a high probability of death. There simply was no treatment for even the mildest of infections as, at the time, it was thought that nothing could kill bacteria in the gut.

When antibiotics were discovered and researched in 1928, it was considered one of the biggest breakthroughs in the medical field. This goes to show how much research drives progress forward, and how it is also responsible for the evolution of technology . 

Today vaccines, diagnoses and treatments can all be simplified with the progression of medical research, making us question just what research can achieve in the future. 

• Engages curiosity 

The acts of searching for information and thinking critically serve as food for the brain, allowing our inherent creativity and logic to remain active. Aside from the fact that this curiosity plays such a huge part within research, it is also proven that exercising our minds can reduce anxiety and our chances of developing mental illnesses in the future. 

Without our natural thirst and our constant need to ask ‘why?’ and ‘how?’ many important theories would not have been put forward and life-changing discoveries would not have been made. The best part is that the research process itself rewards this curiosity. 

Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas which can take a proposed question and turn into a real-life concept. It also builds discerning and analytical skills which are always beneficial in many career fields – not just scientific ones. 

• Increases awareness 

The main goal of any research study is to increase awareness, whether it’s contemplating new concepts with peers from work or attracting the attention of the general public surrounding a certain issue. 

Around the globe, research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial discrimination, and gender inequality. Without consistent and reliable studies to back up these issues, it would be hard to convenience people that there is a problem that needs to be solved in the first place. 

The problem is that social media has become a place where fake news spreads like a wildfire, and with so many incorrect facts out there it can be hard to know who to trust. Assessing the integrity of the news source and checking for similar news on legitimate media outlets can help prove right from wrong. 

This can pinpoint fake research articles and raises awareness of just how important fact-checking can be. 

The Importance Of Research To Students

It is not a hidden fact that research can be mentally draining, which is why most students avoid it like the plague. But the matter of fact is that no matter which career path you choose to go down, research will inevitably be a part of it. 

But why is research so important to students ? The truth is without research, any intellectual growth is pretty much impossible. It acts as a knowledge-building tool that can guide you up to the different levels of learning. Even if you are an expert in your field, there is always more to uncover, or if you are studying an entirely new topic, research can help you build a unique perspective about it.

For example, if you are looking into a topic for the first time, it might be confusing knowing where to begin. Most of the time you have an overwhelming amount of information to sort through whether that be reading through scientific journals online or getting through a pile of textbooks. Research helps to narrow down to the most important points you need so you are able to find what you need to succeed quickly and easily. 

It can also open up great doors in the working world. Employers, especially those in the scientific and medical fields, are always looking for skilled people to hire. Undertaking research and completing studies within your academic phase can show just how multi-skilled you are and give you the resources to tackle any tasks given to you in the workplace. 

The Importance Of Research Methodology

There are many different types of research that can be done, each one with its unique methodology and features that have been designed to use in specific settings. 

When showing your research to others, they will want to be guaranteed that your proposed inquiry needs asking, and that your methodology is equipt to answer your inquiry and will convey the results you’re looking for.

That’s why it’s so important to choose the right methodology for your study. Knowing what the different types of research are and what each of them focuses on can allow you to plan your project to better utilise the most appropriate methodologies and techniques available. Here are some of the most common types:

• Theoretical Research: This attempts to answer a question based on the unknown. This could include studying phenomena or ideas whose conclusions may not have any immediate real-world application. Commonly used in physics and astronomy applications.
• Applied Research: Mainly for development purposes, this seeks to solve a practical problem that draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge. Commonly used in STEM and medical fields. 
• Exploratory Research: Used to investigate a problem that is not clearly defined, this type of research can be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships. It can be applied in a wide range of fields from business to literature. 
• Correlational Research: This identifies the relationship between two or more variables to see if and how they interact with each other. Very commonly used in psychological and statistical applications. 

The Importance Of Qualitative Research

This type of research is most commonly used in scientific and social applications. It collects, compares and interprets information to specifically address the “how” and “why” research questions. 

Qualitative research allows you to ask questions that cannot be easily put into numbers to understand human experience because you’re not limited by survey instruments with a fixed set of possible responses.

Information can be gathered in numerous ways including interviews, focus groups and ethnographic research which is then all reported in the language of the informant instead of statistical analyses. 

This type of research is important because they do not usually require a hypothesis to be carried out. Instead, it is an open-ended research approach that can be adapted and changed while the study is ongoing. This enhances the quality of the data and insights generated and creates a much more unique set of data to analyse. 

The Process Of Scientific Research

No matter the type of research completed, it will be shared and read by others. Whether this is with colleagues at work, peers at university, or whilst it’s being reviewed and repeated during secondary analysis.

A reliable procedure is necessary in order to obtain the best information which is why it’s important to have a plan. Here are the six basic steps that apply in any research process. 

• Observation and asking questions: Seeing a phenomenon and asking yourself ‘How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?’. It is best that these questions are measurable and answerable through experimentation. 
• Gathering information: Doing some background research to learn what is already known about the topic, and what you need to find out. 
• Forming a hypothesis: Constructing a tentative statement to study.
• Testing the hypothesis: Conducting an experiment to test the accuracy of your statement. This is a way to gather data about your predictions and should be easy to repeat. 
• Making conclusions: Analysing the data from the experiment(s) and drawing conclusions about whether they support or contradict your hypothesis. 
• Reporting: Presenting your findings in a clear way to communicate with others. This could include making a video, writing a report or giving a presentation to illustrate your findings. 

Although most scientists and researchers use this method, it may be tweaked between one study and another. Skipping or repeating steps is common within, however the core principles of the research process still apply.

By clearly explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers can then replicate the results. This is especially beneficial for peer reviews that try to replicate the results to ensure that the study is sound. 

What Is The Importance Of Research In Everyday Life?

Conducting a research study and comparing it to how important it is in everyday life are two very different things.

Carrying out research allows you to gain a deeper understanding of science and medicine by developing research questions and letting your curiosity blossom. You can experience what it is like to work in a lab and learn about the whole reasoning behind the scientific process. But how does that impact everyday life? 

Simply put, it allows us to disprove lies and support truths. This can help society to develop a confident attitude and not believe everything as easily, especially with the rise of fake news.

Research is the best and reliable way to understand and act on the complexities of various issues that we as humans are facing. From technology to healthcare to defence to climate change, carrying out studies is the only safe and reliable way to face our future.

Not only does research sharpen our brains, but also helps us to understand various issues of life in a much larger manner, always leaving us questioning everything and fuelling our need for answers. 

Logan Bessant is a dedicated science educator and the founder of Science Resource Online, launched in 2020. With a background in science education and a passion for accessible learning, Logan has built a platform that offers free, high-quality educational resources to learners of all ages and backgrounds.

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2.1 Why is Research Important

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
• Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
• Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

   Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession (figure below). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

Some of our ancestors, across the work and over the centuries, believed that trephination – the practice of making a hole in the skull, as shown here – allowed evil spirits to leave the body, thus curing mental illness and other diseases (credit” “taiproject/Flickr)

   The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

We can easily observe the behavior of others around us. For example, if someone is crying, we can observe that behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes, asking about the underlying cognitions is as easy as asking the subject directly: “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In other situations, it may be hard to identify exactly why you feel the way you do. Think about times when you suddenly feel annoyed after a long day. There may be a specific trigger for your annoyance (a loud noise), or you may be tired, hungry, stressed, or all of the above. Human behavior is often a complicated mix of a variety of factors. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

USE OF RESEARCH INFORMATION

   Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of coming to an agreement, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. In other cases, rapidly developing technology is improving our ability to measure things, and changing our earlier understanding of how the mind works.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? Science is always changing and new evidence is alwaus coming to light, thus this dash of skepticism should be applied to all research you interact with from now on. Yes, that includes the research presented in this textbook.

Evaluation of research findings can have widespread impact. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding the D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) program in public schools (figure below). This program typically involves police officers coming into the classroom to educate students about the dangers of becoming involved with alcohol and other drugs. According to the D.A.R.E. website (www.dare.org), this program has been very popular since its inception in 1983, and it is currently operating in 75% of school districts in the United States and in more than 40 countries worldwide. Sounds like an easy decision, right? However, on closer review, you discover that the vast majority of research into this program consistently suggests that participation has little, if any, effect on whether or not someone uses alcohol or other drugs (Clayton, Cattarello, & Johnstone, 1996; Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, & Flewelling, 1994; Lynam et al., 1999; Ringwalt, Ennett, & Holt, 1991). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, will you fund this particular program, or will you try to find other programs that research has consistently demonstrated to be effective?

The D.A.R.E. program continues to be popular in schools around the world despite research suggesting that it is ineffective.

It is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine you just found out that a close friend has breast cancer or that one of your young relatives has recently been diagnosed with autism. In either case, you want to know which treatment options are most successful with the fewest side effects. How would you find that out? You would probably talk with a doctor or psychologist and personally review the research that has been done on various treatment options—always with a critical eye to ensure that you are as informed as possible.

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

   Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. We continually test and revise theories based on new evidence.

Two types of reasoning are used to make decisions within this model: Deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested against the empirical world. Think about a detective looking for clues and evidence to test their “hunch” about whodunit. In contrast, in inductive reasoning, empirical observations lead to new ideas. In other words, inductive reasoning involves gathering facts to create or refine a theory, rather than testing the theory by gathering facts (figure below). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

Psychological research relies on both inductive and deductive reasoning.

   In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider the famous example from Greek philosophy. A philosopher decided that human beings were “featherless bipeds”. Using deductive reasoning, all two-legged creatures without feathers must be human, right? Diogenes the Cynic (named because he was, well, a cynic) burst into the room with a freshly plucked chicken from the market and held it up exclaiming “Behold! I have brought you a man!”

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For example, you might be a biologist attempting to classify animals into groups. You notice that quite a large portion of animals are furry and produce milk for their young (cats, dogs, squirrels, horses, hippos, etc). Therefore, you might conclude that all mammals (the name you have chosen for this grouping) have hair and produce milk. This seems like a pretty great hypothesis that you could test with deductive reasoning. You go out an look at a whole bunch of things and stumble on an exception: The coconut. Coconuts have hair and produce milk, but they don’t “fit” your idea of what a mammal is. So, using inductive reasoning given the new evidence, you adjust your theory again for an other round of data collection. Inductive and deductive reasoning work in tandem to help build and improve scientific theories over time.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once. Instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our theory is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests (figure below).

The scientific method of research includes proposing hypotheses, conducting research, and creating or modifying theories based on results.

   To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable, or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors (figure below). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable. The essential characteristic of Freud’s building blocks of personality, the id, ego, and superego, is that they are unconscious, and therefore people can’t observe them. Because they cannot be observed or tested in any way, it is impossible to say that they don’t exist, so they cannot be considered scientific theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

Many of the specifics of (a) Freud’s theories, such ad (b) his division on the mind into the id, ego, and superego, have fallen out of favor in recent decades because they are not falsifiable (i.e., cannot be verified through scientific investigation).  In broader strokes, his views set the stage for much psychological thinking today, such as the idea that some psychological process occur at the level of the unconscious.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world around them works, and they are able to do so by coming up with theories that generate hypotheses that are testable and falsifiable. Theories that stand up to their tests are retained and refined, while those that do not are discarded or modified. IHaving good information generated from research aids in making wise decisions both in public policy and in our personal lives.

Review Questions:

1. Scientific hypotheses are ________ and falsifiable.

a. observable

b. original

c. provable

d. testable

2. ________ are defined as observable realities.

a. behaviors

c. opinions

d. theories

3. Scientific knowledge is ________.

a. intuitive

b. empirical

c. permanent

d. subjective

4. A major criticism of Freud’s early theories involves the fact that his theories ________.

a. were too limited in scope

b. were too outrageous

c. were too broad

d. were not testable

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. In this section, the D.A.R.E. program was described as an incredibly popular program in schools across the United States despite the fact that research consistently suggests that this program is largely ineffective. How might one explain this discrepancy?

2. The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and cyclical. Briefly describe your understanding of the scientific method with regard to these concepts.

Personal Application Questions:

1. Healthcare professionals cite an enormous number of health problems related to obesity, and many people have an understandable desire to attain a healthy weight. There are many diet programs, services, and products on the market to aid those who wish to lose weight. If a close friend was considering purchasing or participating in one of these products, programs, or services, how would you make sure your friend was fully aware of the potential consequences of this decision? What sort of information would you want to review before making such an investment or lifestyle change yourself?

deductive reasoning

falsifiable

hypothesis:  (plural

inductive reasoning

Answers to Exercises

Review Questions: 

1. There is probably tremendous political pressure to appear to be hard on drugs. Therefore, even though D.A.R.E. might be ineffective, it is a well-known program with which voters are familiar.

2. This cyclical, self-correcting process is primarily a function of the empirical nature of science. Theories are generated as explanations of real-world phenomena. From theories, specific hypotheses are developed and tested. As a function of this testing, theories will be revisited and modified or refined to generate new hypotheses that are again tested. This cyclical process ultimately allows for more and more precise (and presumably accurate) information to be collected.

deductive reasoning:  results are predicted based on a general premise

empirical:  grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

fact:  objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable:  able to be disproven by experimental results

hypothesis:  (plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

inductive reasoning:  conclusions are drawn from observations

opinion:  personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

theory:  well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

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The Importance of Research in the Advancement of Society

Thanks to the internet and other technologies, life moves at a very fast pace. We’re constantly adapting and learning new ways to do things–as well as expecting and even demanding innovation from our scientists, executives, and leaders.

Without research, our demands would go completely unanswered!

Curiosity leads to research

Research is what propels humanity forward. It’s fueled by curiosity: we get curious, ask questions, and immerse ourselves in discovering everything there is to know. Learning is thriving. Without curiosity and research, progress would slow to a halt, and our lives as we know them would be completely different.

What would happen without research?

If early civilizations hadn’t been curious about the dark sky, we wouldn’t know anything about space. Decades of research have led us to where we are today: a civilized society with the knowledge and tools to move forward.

If that research slowed to a standstill, what would happen?

We’d become ignorant and unaware. We wouldn’t understand or go forward. Without research, we couldn’t say we were close to finding the cure for cancer or find the most eco-friendly way to light up our homes and offices. We wouldn’t know that, even though bees are not our favorites, they do a job that help us all.

Without research, we could not possibly have survived as long as we have.

And there are still millions of things that have yet to be discovered: diseases to cure, waters to explore, species to discover. All of that is possible with research.

The future of research

Thankfully, schools are becoming more concerned with science and technology, and research is finding its place in the minds of today’s students. Students are eager to make discoveries, create solutions to the world’s problems, and invent the next big thing. We’re going places, one research project at a time.

How do we enable researchers to spend their time on, well, research (instead of filling out forms)? Thankfully, there’s cloud-based software to make that easier. Researchers and research administrators can find funding faster , apply for it more easily, manage their funding once they get it, meet federal and local requirements for documentation, stay in compliance if research involves humans or animals, and make sure research facilities are safe .

All of that means they’re one step closer to tomorrow’s big discoveries.

Adapted from an essay by Cali Simboli

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How does research impact your everyday life?

“Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought.” – Albert Szent-Gyorgyi

What would the modern world look like without the bedrock of research?

First and foremost – without research, there’s no way you’d possibly be reading this right now, as the Internet was pioneered and developed (via a whole heap of exhaustive research…) by the European Organization for Nuclear Research , or CERN, the same association that produced the Large Hadron Collider.

Without research, we’d likely also be utterly defenceless to the brutal forces of nature. For example, without meteorology, we’d be unable to predict the path of violent storms, hurricanes and tornadoes, while a lack of volcanology research would leave a huge proportion of the world susceptible to the destruction of volcanic eruptions.

And it doesn’t end there.

Medical technology and discovery would be non-existent – no MRi , no anaesthetic, no birth control, no X-Ray machine, no insulin, no IVF, no penicillin, no germ theory, no DNA, and no smallpox vaccination – which, by the way would have wiped out one out of every nine babies had Jenner not researched and found a cure.

Source: University of Surrey

So not only is research an invaluable tool for building on crucial knowledge, it’s also the most reliable way we can begin to understand the complexities of various issues; to maintain our integrity as we disprove lies and uphold important truths; to serve as the seed for analysing convoluted sets of data; as well as to serve as ‘nourishment’, or exercise for the mind.

“…Aside from the pure pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, research is linked to problem solving,” John Armstrong, a respected global higher education and research professional, writes for The Conversation. “What this means is the solving of other people’s problems. That is, what other people experience as problems.

“It starts with a tenderness and ambition that is directed at the needs of others – as they recognise and acknowledge those needs,” he continues. “This is, in effect, entry into a market place. Much research, of course, is conducted in precisely this way beyond the walls of the academy.”

Ultimately, when we begin to look at research for what it truly is – a catalyst for solving complex issues – we begin to understand the impact it truly has on our everyday lives. The University of Surrey , set just a 10 minute walk from the centre of Guildford – ranked the 8 th best place to live in the UK in the Halifax Quality of Life Survey – is a prime example of a university producing high-impact research for the benefit of our global society.

Surrey’s experienced research team found that pollution levels inside cars were found to be up to 40 percent higher while sitting in queues, or at red lights, when compared to free-flowing traffic conditions. And with the World Health Organisation (WHO) placing outdoor air pollution among the top 10 health risks currently facing humans, linking to seven million premature deaths each year, Surrey took on the research challenge of finding an effective solution…

…And boy, did they get the results!

“Where possible and the weather conditional allowing, it is one of the best ways to limit your exposure by keeping windows shut, fans turned off and to try and increase the distance between you and the car in front while at traffic jams or stationary at traffic lights,” says Dr Prashant Kumar, Senior Author of the study. “If the fan or heater needs to be on, the best setting would be to have the air re-circulating within the car without drawing air from outdoors.”

Researchers actually found that closed windows or re-circulated air can reduce in-car pollutants by as much as 76 percent, highlighting how Surrey’s research outcomes could bring a wealth of invaluable global benefits.

As further testament to Surrey’s impactful research success, a study that uncovered high levels of Vitamin D inadequacy among UK adolescents has been published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , and has now been used to inform crucial national guidance from Public Health England.

“The research has found that adolescence, the time when bone growth is most important in laying down the foundations for later life, is a time when Vitamin D levels are inadequate,” says Dr Taryn Smith, Lead Author of the study. The study forms part of a four-year, EU-funded project, ODIN, which aims to investigate safe and effective ways of boosting Vitamin D intake through food fortification and bio-fortification.

“The ODIN project is investigating ways of improving Vitamin D intake through diet,” continues Dr Smith, “and since it is difficult to obtain Vitamin D intakes of over 10ug/day from food sources alone, it is looking at ways of fortifying our food to improve the Vitamin D levels of the UK population as a whole.”

But the impact of Surrey’s research is broad and all-encompassing, with on-going projects into things like radiotherapy, dementia, blue light and human attentiveness, disaster monitoring, sustainable development, digital storytelling, and beyond. And benefits of research produced at the University of Surrey is not meant for the UK population alone; these are the issues that face us as an increasingly international and interconnected society, making research produced by world-class institutions like Surrey the tools to pave the way to bigger, brighter and healthier global future.

Find out more about studying for a postgraduate degree at Surrey by registering for one of Surrey’s Webinars .

Follow Surrey on Facebook , Twitter , Instagram , YouTube , Pinterest and LinkedIn

Feature image via Shutterstock

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10 Why is Research Important?

Learning Objectives

• Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behaviour
• Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
• Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession ( Figure PR.2 ). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behaviour, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behaviour. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behaviour of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is  empirical : it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behaviour is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behaviour. However, the reason for the behaviour is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behaviour by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behaviour. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Use of Research Information

Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the explosion in our use of technology has led researchers to question whether this ultimately helps or hinders us. The use and implementation of technology in educational settings has become widespread over the last few decades. Researchers are coming to different conclusions regarding the use of technology. To illustrate this point, a study investigating a smartphone app targeting surgery residents (graduate students in surgery training) found that the use of this app can increase student engagement and raise test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015). Conversely, another study found that the use of technology in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009). Until sufficient amounts of research have been conducted, there will be no clear consensus on the effects that technology has on a student’s acquisition of knowledge, study skills, and mental health.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.

We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the Premier of your province. One of your responsibilities is to manage the provincial budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new Premier, you need to decide whether to continue funding early intervention programs. These programs are designed to help children who come from low-income backgrounds, have special needs, or face other disadvantages. These programs may involve providing a wide variety of services to maximize the children’s development and position them for optimal levels of success in school and later in life (Blann, 2005). While such programs sound appealing, you would want to be sure that they also proved effective before investing additional money in these programs. Fortunately, psychologists and other scientists have conducted vast amounts of research on such programs and, in general, the programs are found to be effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). While not all programs are equally effective, and the short-term effects of many such programs are more pronounced, there is reason to believe that many of these programs produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, you would want to look at research. Which programs are most effective? What characteristics of these programs make them effective? Which programs promote the best outcomes? After examining the research, you would be best equipped to make decisions about which programs to fund.

LINK TO LEARNING

Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine you just found out that a close friend has breast cancer or that one of your young relatives has recently been diagnosed with autism. In either case, you want to know which treatment options are most successful with the fewest side effects. How would you find that out? You would probably talk with your doctor and personally review the research that has been done on various treatment options—always with a critical eye to ensure that you are as informed as possible.

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions.  Facts  are observable realities, and  opinions  are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

The Process of Scientific Research

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the  scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In  deductive reasoning , ideas are tested in the real world; in  inductive reasoning , real-world observations lead to new ideas ( Figure PR.3 ). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is supported, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive.

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favourite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A  theory   is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A  hypothesis  is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests  Figure PR.4 .

Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience Copyright © 2020 by Edited by Leanne Stevens is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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2.1 Why Is Research Important?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
• Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
• Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession ( Figure 2.2 ). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Use of Research Information

Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the explosion in our use of technology has led researchers to question whether this ultimately helps or hinders us. The use and implementation of technology in educational settings has become widespread over the last few decades. Researchers are coming to different conclusions regarding the use of technology. To illustrate this point, a study investigating a smartphone app targeting surgery residents (graduate students in surgery training) found that the use of this app can increase student engagement and raise test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015). Conversely, another study found that the use of technology in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009). Until sufficient amounts of research have been conducted, there will be no clear consensus on the effects that technology has on a student's acquisition of knowledge, study skills, and mental health.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.

We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding early intervention programs. These programs are designed to help children who come from low-income backgrounds, have special needs, or face other disadvantages. These programs may involve providing a wide variety of services to maximize the children's development and position them for optimal levels of success in school and later in life (Blann, 2005). While such programs sound appealing, you would want to be sure that they also proved effective before investing additional money in these programs. Fortunately, psychologists and other scientists have conducted vast amounts of research on such programs and, in general, the programs are found to be effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). While not all programs are equally effective, and the short-term effects of many such programs are more pronounced, there is reason to believe that many of these programs produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, you would want to look at research. Which programs are most effective? What characteristics of these programs make them effective? Which programs promote the best outcomes? After examining the research, you would be best equipped to make decisions about which programs to fund.

Link to Learning

Watch this video about early childhood program effectiveness to learn how scientists evaluate effectiveness and how best to invest money into programs that are most effective.

Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine that your sister, Maria, expresses concern about her two-year-old child, Umberto. Umberto does not speak as much or as clearly as the other children in his daycare or others in the family. Umberto's pediatrician undertakes some screening and recommends an evaluation by a speech pathologist, but does not refer Maria to any other specialists. Maria is concerned that Umberto's speech delays are signs of a developmental disorder, but Umberto's pediatrician does not; she sees indications of differences in Umberto's jaw and facial muscles. Hearing this, you do some internet searches, but you are overwhelmed by the breadth of information and the wide array of sources. You see blog posts, top-ten lists, advertisements from healthcare providers, and recommendations from several advocacy organizations. Why are there so many sites? Which are based in research, and which are not?

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

Psychological research has a long history involving important figures from diverse backgrounds. While the introductory chapter discussed several researchers who made significant contributions to the discipline, there are many more individuals who deserve attention in considering how psychology has advanced as a science through their work ( Figure 2.3 ). For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. Her research focused on animal behavior and cognition (Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD, n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States (Mary Whiton Calkins, n.d.).

Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. His dissertation focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Sumner also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. Sumner was one of the founders of Howard University’s department of psychology, and because of his accomplishments, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.” Thirteen years later, Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools, and ultimately, her work was very influential in the hallmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional (Ethnicity and Health in America Series: Featured Psychologists, n.d.).

Although the establishment of psychology’s scientific roots occurred first in Europe and the United States, it did not take much time until researchers from around the world began to establish their own laboratories and research programs. For example, some of the first experimental psychology laboratories in South America were founded by Horatio Piñero (1869–1919) at two institutions in Buenos Aires, Argentina (Godoy & Brussino, 2010). In India, Gunamudian David Boaz (1908–1965) and Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (1889–1944) established the first independent departments of psychology at the University of Madras and the University of Calcutta, respectively. These developments provided an opportunity for Indian researchers to make important contributions to the field (Gunamudian David Boaz, n.d.; Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, n.d.).

When the American Psychological Association (APA) was first founded in 1892, all of the members were White males (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.). However, by 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA, and by 1946, nearly one-quarter of American psychologists were female. Psychology became a popular degree option for students enrolled in the nation’s historically Black higher education institutions, increasing the number of Black Americans who went on to become psychologists. Given demographic shifts occurring in the United States and increased access to higher educational opportunities among historically underrepresented populations, there is reason to hope that the diversity of the field will increasingly match the larger population, and that the research contributions made by the psychologists of the future will better serve people of all backgrounds (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.).

The Process of Scientific Research

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning , ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning , real-world observations lead to new ideas ( Figure 2.4 ). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive.

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests Figure 2.5 .

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors ( Figure 2.6 ). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

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What Is Research, and Why Do People Do It?

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• James Hiebert 6 ,
• Jinfa Cai 7 ,
• Stephen Hwang 7 ,
• Anne K Morris 6 &
• Charles Hohensee 6  

Part of the book series: Research in Mathematics Education ((RME))

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Abstractspiepr Abs1

Every day people do research as they gather information to learn about something of interest. In the scientific world, however, research means something different than simply gathering information. Scientific research is characterized by its careful planning and observing, by its relentless efforts to understand and explain, and by its commitment to learn from everyone else seriously engaged in research. We call this kind of research scientific inquiry and define it as “formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses.” By “hypotheses” we do not mean the hypotheses you encounter in statistics courses. We mean predictions about what you expect to find and rationales for why you made these predictions. Throughout this and the remaining chapters we make clear that the process of scientific inquiry applies to all kinds of research studies and data, both qualitative and quantitative.

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Part I. What Is Research?

Have you ever studied something carefully because you wanted to know more about it? Maybe you wanted to know more about your grandmother’s life when she was younger so you asked her to tell you stories from her childhood, or maybe you wanted to know more about a fertilizer you were about to use in your garden so you read the ingredients on the package and looked them up online. According to the dictionary definition, you were doing research.

Recall your high school assignments asking you to “research” a topic. The assignment likely included consulting a variety of sources that discussed the topic, perhaps including some “original” sources. Often, the teacher referred to your product as a “research paper.”

Were you conducting research when you interviewed your grandmother or wrote high school papers reviewing a particular topic? Our view is that you were engaged in part of the research process, but only a small part. In this book, we reserve the word “research” for what it means in the scientific world, that is, for scientific research or, more pointedly, for scientific inquiry .

Exercise 1.1

Before you read any further, write a definition of what you think scientific inquiry is. Keep it short—Two to three sentences. You will periodically update this definition as you read this chapter and the remainder of the book.

This book is about scientific inquiry—what it is and how to do it. For starters, scientific inquiry is a process, a particular way of finding out about something that involves a number of phases. Each phase of the process constitutes one aspect of scientific inquiry. You are doing scientific inquiry as you engage in each phase, but you have not done scientific inquiry until you complete the full process. Each phase is necessary but not sufficient.

In this chapter, we set the stage by defining scientific inquiry—describing what it is and what it is not—and by discussing what it is good for and why people do it. The remaining chapters build directly on the ideas presented in this chapter.

A first thing to know is that scientific inquiry is not all or nothing. “Scientificness” is a continuum. Inquiries can be more scientific or less scientific. What makes an inquiry more scientific? You might be surprised there is no universally agreed upon answer to this question. None of the descriptors we know of are sufficient by themselves to define scientific inquiry. But all of them give you a way of thinking about some aspects of the process of scientific inquiry. Each one gives you different insights.

Exercise 1.2

As you read about each descriptor below, think about what would make an inquiry more or less scientific. If you think a descriptor is important, use it to revise your definition of scientific inquiry.

Creating an Image of Scientific Inquiry

We will present three descriptors of scientific inquiry. Each provides a different perspective and emphasizes a different aspect of scientific inquiry. We will draw on all three descriptors to compose our definition of scientific inquiry.

Descriptor 1. Experience Carefully Planned in Advance

Sir Ronald Fisher, often called the father of modern statistical design, once referred to research as “experience carefully planned in advance” (1935, p. 8). He said that humans are always learning from experience, from interacting with the world around them. Usually, this learning is haphazard rather than the result of a deliberate process carried out over an extended period of time. Research, Fisher said, was learning from experience, but experience carefully planned in advance.

This phrase can be fully appreciated by looking at each word. The fact that scientific inquiry is based on experience means that it is based on interacting with the world. These interactions could be thought of as the stuff of scientific inquiry. In addition, it is not just any experience that counts. The experience must be carefully planned . The interactions with the world must be conducted with an explicit, describable purpose, and steps must be taken to make the intended learning as likely as possible. This planning is an integral part of scientific inquiry; it is not just a preparation phase. It is one of the things that distinguishes scientific inquiry from many everyday learning experiences. Finally, these steps must be taken beforehand and the purpose of the inquiry must be articulated in advance of the experience. Clearly, scientific inquiry does not happen by accident, by just stumbling into something. Stumbling into something unexpected and interesting can happen while engaged in scientific inquiry, but learning does not depend on it and serendipity does not make the inquiry scientific.

Descriptor 2. Observing Something and Trying to Explain Why It Is the Way It Is

When we were writing this chapter and googled “scientific inquiry,” the first entry was: “Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work.” The emphasis is on studying, or observing, and then explaining . This descriptor takes the image of scientific inquiry beyond carefully planned experience and includes explaining what was experienced.

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, “explain” means “(a) to make known, (b) to make plain or understandable, (c) to give the reason or cause of, and (d) to show the logical development or relations of” (Merriam-Webster, n.d. ). We will use all these definitions. Taken together, they suggest that to explain an observation means to understand it by finding reasons (or causes) for why it is as it is. In this sense of scientific inquiry, the following are synonyms: explaining why, understanding why, and reasoning about causes and effects. Our image of scientific inquiry now includes planning, observing, and explaining why.

We need to add a final note about this descriptor. We have phrased it in a way that suggests “observing something” means you are observing something in real time—observing the way things are or the way things are changing. This is often true. But, observing could mean observing data that already have been collected, maybe by someone else making the original observations (e.g., secondary analysis of NAEP data or analysis of existing video recordings of classroom instruction). We will address secondary analyses more fully in Chap. 4 . For now, what is important is that the process requires explaining why the data look like they do.

We must note that for us, the term “data” is not limited to numerical or quantitative data such as test scores. Data can also take many nonquantitative forms, including written survey responses, interview transcripts, journal entries, video recordings of students, teachers, and classrooms, text messages, and so forth.

Exercise 1.3

What are the implications of the statement that just “observing” is not enough to count as scientific inquiry? Does this mean that a detailed description of a phenomenon is not scientific inquiry?

Find sources that define research in education that differ with our position, that say description alone, without explanation, counts as scientific research. Identify the precise points where the opinions differ. What are the best arguments for each of the positions? Which do you prefer? Why?

Descriptor 3. Updating Everyone’s Thinking in Response to More and Better Information

This descriptor focuses on a third aspect of scientific inquiry: updating and advancing the field’s understanding of phenomena that are investigated. This descriptor foregrounds a powerful characteristic of scientific inquiry: the reliability (or trustworthiness) of what is learned and the ultimate inevitability of this learning to advance human understanding of phenomena. Humans might choose not to learn from scientific inquiry, but history suggests that scientific inquiry always has the potential to advance understanding and that, eventually, humans take advantage of these new understandings.

Before exploring these bold claims a bit further, note that this descriptor uses “information” in the same way the previous two descriptors used “experience” and “observations.” These are the stuff of scientific inquiry and we will use them often, sometimes interchangeably. Frequently, we will use the term “data” to stand for all these terms.

An overriding goal of scientific inquiry is for everyone to learn from what one scientist does. Much of this book is about the methods you need to use so others have faith in what you report and can learn the same things you learned. This aspect of scientific inquiry has many implications.

One implication is that scientific inquiry is not a private practice. It is a public practice available for others to see and learn from. Notice how different this is from everyday learning. When you happen to learn something from your everyday experience, often only you gain from the experience. The fact that research is a public practice means it is also a social one. It is best conducted by interacting with others along the way: soliciting feedback at each phase, taking opportunities to present work-in-progress, and benefitting from the advice of others.

A second implication is that you, as the researcher, must be committed to sharing what you are doing and what you are learning in an open and transparent way. This allows all phases of your work to be scrutinized and critiqued. This is what gives your work credibility. The reliability or trustworthiness of your findings depends on your colleagues recognizing that you have used all appropriate methods to maximize the chances that your claims are justified by the data.

A third implication of viewing scientific inquiry as a collective enterprise is the reverse of the second—you must be committed to receiving comments from others. You must treat your colleagues as fair and honest critics even though it might sometimes feel otherwise. You must appreciate their job, which is to remain skeptical while scrutinizing what you have done in considerable detail. To provide the best help to you, they must remain skeptical about your conclusions (when, for example, the data are difficult for them to interpret) until you offer a convincing logical argument based on the information you share. A rather harsh but good-to-remember statement of the role of your friendly critics was voiced by Karl Popper, a well-known twentieth century philosopher of science: “. . . if you are interested in the problem which I tried to solve by my tentative assertion, you may help me by criticizing it as severely as you can” (Popper, 1968, p. 27).

A final implication of this third descriptor is that, as someone engaged in scientific inquiry, you have no choice but to update your thinking when the data support a different conclusion. This applies to your own data as well as to those of others. When data clearly point to a specific claim, even one that is quite different than you expected, you must reconsider your position. If the outcome is replicated multiple times, you need to adjust your thinking accordingly. Scientific inquiry does not let you pick and choose which data to believe; it mandates that everyone update their thinking when the data warrant an update.

Doing Scientific Inquiry

We define scientific inquiry in an operational sense—what does it mean to do scientific inquiry? What kind of process would satisfy all three descriptors: carefully planning an experience in advance; observing and trying to explain what you see; and, contributing to updating everyone’s thinking about an important phenomenon?

We define scientific inquiry as formulating , testing , and revising hypotheses about phenomena of interest.

Of course, we are not the only ones who define it in this way. The definition for the scientific method posted by the editors of Britannica is: “a researcher develops a hypothesis, tests it through various means, and then modifies the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and experiments” (Britannica, n.d. ).

Notice how defining scientific inquiry this way satisfies each of the descriptors. “Carefully planning an experience in advance” is exactly what happens when formulating a hypothesis about a phenomenon of interest and thinking about how to test it. “ Observing a phenomenon” occurs when testing a hypothesis, and “ explaining ” what is found is required when revising a hypothesis based on the data. Finally, “updating everyone’s thinking” comes from comparing publicly the original with the revised hypothesis.

Doing scientific inquiry, as we have defined it, underscores the value of accumulating knowledge rather than generating random bits of knowledge. Formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses is an ongoing process, with each revised hypothesis begging for another test, whether by the same researcher or by new researchers. The editors of Britannica signaled this cyclic process by adding the following phrase to their definition of the scientific method: “The modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again.” Scientific inquiry creates a process that encourages each study to build on the studies that have gone before. Through collective engagement in this process of building study on top of study, the scientific community works together to update its thinking.

Before exploring more fully the meaning of “formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses,” we need to acknowledge that this is not the only way researchers define research. Some researchers prefer a less formal definition, one that includes more serendipity, less planning, less explanation. You might have come across more open definitions such as “research is finding out about something.” We prefer the tighter hypothesis formulation, testing, and revision definition because we believe it provides a single, coherent map for conducting research that addresses many of the thorny problems educational researchers encounter. We believe it is the most useful orientation toward research and the most helpful to learn as a beginning researcher.

A final clarification of our definition is that it applies equally to qualitative and quantitative research. This is a familiar distinction in education that has generated much discussion. You might think our definition favors quantitative methods over qualitative methods because the language of hypothesis formulation and testing is often associated with quantitative methods. In fact, we do not favor one method over another. In Chap. 4 , we will illustrate how our definition fits research using a range of quantitative and qualitative methods.

Exercise 1.4

Look for ways to extend what the field knows in an area that has already received attention by other researchers. Specifically, you can search for a program of research carried out by more experienced researchers that has some revised hypotheses that remain untested. Identify a revised hypothesis that you might like to test.

Unpacking the Terms Formulating, Testing, and Revising Hypotheses

To get a full sense of the definition of scientific inquiry we will use throughout this book, it is helpful to spend a little time with each of the key terms.

We first want to make clear that we use the term “hypothesis” as it is defined in most dictionaries and as it used in many scientific fields rather than as it is usually defined in educational statistics courses. By “hypothesis,” we do not mean a null hypothesis that is accepted or rejected by statistical analysis. Rather, we use “hypothesis” in the sense conveyed by the following definitions: “An idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved” (Cambridge University Press, n.d. ), and “An unproved theory, proposition, or supposition, tentatively accepted to explain certain facts and to provide a basis for further investigation or argument” (Agnes & Guralnik, 2008 ).

We distinguish two parts to “hypotheses.” Hypotheses consist of predictions and rationales . Predictions are statements about what you expect to find when you inquire about something. Rationales are explanations for why you made the predictions you did, why you believe your predictions are correct. So, for us “formulating hypotheses” means making explicit predictions and developing rationales for the predictions.

“Testing hypotheses” means making observations that allow you to assess in what ways your predictions were correct and in what ways they were incorrect. In education research, it is rarely useful to think of your predictions as either right or wrong. Because of the complexity of most issues you will investigate, most predictions will be right in some ways and wrong in others.

By studying the observations you make (data you collect) to test your hypotheses, you can revise your hypotheses to better align with the observations. This means revising your predictions plus revising your rationales to justify your adjusted predictions. Even though you might not run another test, formulating revised hypotheses is an essential part of conducting a research study. Comparing your original and revised hypotheses informs everyone of what you learned by conducting your study. In addition, a revised hypothesis sets the stage for you or someone else to extend your study and accumulate more knowledge of the phenomenon.

We should note that not everyone makes a clear distinction between predictions and rationales as two aspects of hypotheses. In fact, common, non-scientific uses of the word “hypothesis” may limit it to only a prediction or only an explanation (or rationale). We choose to explicitly include both prediction and rationale in our definition of hypothesis, not because we assert this should be the universal definition, but because we want to foreground the importance of both parts acting in concert. Using “hypothesis” to represent both prediction and rationale could hide the two aspects, but we make them explicit because they provide different kinds of information. It is usually easier to make predictions than develop rationales because predictions can be guesses, hunches, or gut feelings about which you have little confidence. Developing a compelling rationale requires careful thought plus reading what other researchers have found plus talking with your colleagues. Often, while you are developing your rationale you will find good reasons to change your predictions. Developing good rationales is the engine that drives scientific inquiry. Rationales are essentially descriptions of how much you know about the phenomenon you are studying. Throughout this guide, we will elaborate on how developing good rationales drives scientific inquiry. For now, we simply note that it can sharpen your predictions and help you to interpret your data as you test your hypotheses.

Hypotheses in education research take a variety of forms or types. This is because there are a variety of phenomena that can be investigated. Investigating educational phenomena is sometimes best done using qualitative methods, sometimes using quantitative methods, and most often using mixed methods (e.g., Hay, 2016 ; Weis et al. 2019a ; Weisner, 2005 ). This means that, given our definition, hypotheses are equally applicable to qualitative and quantitative investigations.

Hypotheses take different forms when they are used to investigate different kinds of phenomena. Two very different activities in education could be labeled conducting experiments and descriptions. In an experiment, a hypothesis makes a prediction about anticipated changes, say the changes that occur when a treatment or intervention is applied. You might investigate how students’ thinking changes during a particular kind of instruction.

A second type of hypothesis, relevant for descriptive research, makes a prediction about what you will find when you investigate and describe the nature of a situation. The goal is to understand a situation as it exists rather than to understand a change from one situation to another. In this case, your prediction is what you expect to observe. Your rationale is the set of reasons for making this prediction; it is your current explanation for why the situation will look like it does.

You will probably read, if you have not already, that some researchers say you do not need a prediction to conduct a descriptive study. We will discuss this point of view in Chap. 2 . For now, we simply claim that scientific inquiry, as we have defined it, applies to all kinds of research studies. Descriptive studies, like others, not only benefit from formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses, but also need hypothesis formulating, testing, and revising.

One reason we define research as formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses is that if you think of research in this way you are less likely to go wrong. It is a useful guide for the entire process, as we will describe in detail in the chapters ahead. For example, as you build the rationale for your predictions, you are constructing the theoretical framework for your study (Chap. 3 ). As you work out the methods you will use to test your hypothesis, every decision you make will be based on asking, “Will this help me formulate or test or revise my hypothesis?” (Chap. 4 ). As you interpret the results of testing your predictions, you will compare them to what you predicted and examine the differences, focusing on how you must revise your hypotheses (Chap. 5 ). By anchoring the process to formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses, you will make smart decisions that yield a coherent and well-designed study.

Exercise 1.5

Compare the concept of formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses with the descriptions of scientific inquiry contained in Scientific Research in Education (NRC, 2002 ). How are they similar or different?

Exercise 1.6

Provide an example to illustrate and emphasize the differences between everyday learning/thinking and scientific inquiry.

Learning from Doing Scientific Inquiry

We noted earlier that a measure of what you have learned by conducting a research study is found in the differences between your original hypothesis and your revised hypothesis based on the data you collected to test your hypothesis. We will elaborate this statement in later chapters, but we preview our argument here.

Even before collecting data, scientific inquiry requires cycles of making a prediction, developing a rationale, refining your predictions, reading and studying more to strengthen your rationale, refining your predictions again, and so forth. And, even if you have run through several such cycles, you still will likely find that when you test your prediction you will be partly right and partly wrong. The results will support some parts of your predictions but not others, or the results will “kind of” support your predictions. A critical part of scientific inquiry is making sense of your results by interpreting them against your predictions. Carefully describing what aspects of your data supported your predictions, what aspects did not, and what data fell outside of any predictions is not an easy task, but you cannot learn from your study without doing this analysis.

Analyzing the matches and mismatches between your predictions and your data allows you to formulate different rationales that would have accounted for more of the data. The best revised rationale is the one that accounts for the most data. Once you have revised your rationales, you can think about the predictions they best justify or explain. It is by comparing your original rationales to your new rationales that you can sort out what you learned from your study.

Suppose your study was an experiment. Maybe you were investigating the effects of a new instructional intervention on students’ learning. Your original rationale was your explanation for why the intervention would change the learning outcomes in a particular way. Your revised rationale explained why the changes that you observed occurred like they did and why your revised predictions are better. Maybe your original rationale focused on the potential of the activities if they were implemented in ideal ways and your revised rationale included the factors that are likely to affect how teachers implement them. By comparing the before and after rationales, you are describing what you learned—what you can explain now that you could not before. Another way of saying this is that you are describing how much more you understand now than before you conducted your study.

Revised predictions based on carefully planned and collected data usually exhibit some of the following features compared with the originals: more precision, more completeness, and broader scope. Revised rationales have more explanatory power and become more complete, more aligned with the new predictions, sharper, and overall more convincing.

Part II. Why Do Educators Do Research?

Doing scientific inquiry is a lot of work. Each phase of the process takes time, and you will often cycle back to improve earlier phases as you engage in later phases. Because of the significant effort required, you should make sure your study is worth it. So, from the beginning, you should think about the purpose of your study. Why do you want to do it? And, because research is a social practice, you should also think about whether the results of your study are likely to be important and significant to the education community.

If you are doing research in the way we have described—as scientific inquiry—then one purpose of your study is to understand , not just to describe or evaluate or report. As we noted earlier, when you formulate hypotheses, you are developing rationales that explain why things might be like they are. In our view, trying to understand and explain is what separates research from other kinds of activities, like evaluating or describing.

One reason understanding is so important is that it allows researchers to see how or why something works like it does. When you see how something works, you are better able to predict how it might work in other contexts, under other conditions. And, because conditions, or contextual factors, matter a lot in education, gaining insights into applying your findings to other contexts increases the contributions of your work and its importance to the broader education community.

Consequently, the purposes of research studies in education often include the more specific aim of identifying and understanding the conditions under which the phenomena being studied work like the observations suggest. A classic example of this kind of study in mathematics education was reported by William Brownell and Harold Moser in 1949 . They were trying to establish which method of subtracting whole numbers could be taught most effectively—the regrouping method or the equal additions method. However, they realized that effectiveness might depend on the conditions under which the methods were taught—“meaningfully” versus “mechanically.” So, they designed a study that crossed the two instructional approaches with the two different methods (regrouping and equal additions). Among other results, they found that these conditions did matter. The regrouping method was more effective under the meaningful condition than the mechanical condition, but the same was not true for the equal additions algorithm.

What do education researchers want to understand? In our view, the ultimate goal of education is to offer all students the best possible learning opportunities. So, we believe the ultimate purpose of scientific inquiry in education is to develop understanding that supports the improvement of learning opportunities for all students. We say “ultimate” because there are lots of issues that must be understood to improve learning opportunities for all students. Hypotheses about many aspects of education are connected, ultimately, to students’ learning. For example, formulating and testing a hypothesis that preservice teachers need to engage in particular kinds of activities in their coursework in order to teach particular topics well is, ultimately, connected to improving students’ learning opportunities. So is hypothesizing that school districts often devote relatively few resources to instructional leadership training or hypothesizing that positioning mathematics as a tool students can use to combat social injustice can help students see the relevance of mathematics to their lives.

We do not exclude the importance of research on educational issues more removed from improving students’ learning opportunities, but we do think the argument for their importance will be more difficult to make. If there is no way to imagine a connection between your hypothesis and improving learning opportunities for students, even a distant connection, we recommend you reconsider whether it is an important hypothesis within the education community.

Notice that we said the ultimate goal of education is to offer all students the best possible learning opportunities. For too long, educators have been satisfied with a goal of offering rich learning opportunities for lots of students, sometimes even for just the majority of students, but not necessarily for all students. Evaluations of success often are based on outcomes that show high averages. In other words, if many students have learned something, or even a smaller number have learned a lot, educators may have been satisfied. The problem is that there is usually a pattern in the groups of students who receive lower quality opportunities—students of color and students who live in poor areas, urban and rural. This is not acceptable. Consequently, we emphasize the premise that the purpose of education research is to offer rich learning opportunities to all students.

One way to make sure you will be able to convince others of the importance of your study is to consider investigating some aspect of teachers’ shared instructional problems. Historically, researchers in education have set their own research agendas, regardless of the problems teachers are facing in schools. It is increasingly recognized that teachers have had trouble applying to their own classrooms what researchers find. To address this problem, a researcher could partner with a teacher—better yet, a small group of teachers—and talk with them about instructional problems they all share. These discussions can create a rich pool of problems researchers can consider. If researchers pursued one of these problems (preferably alongside teachers), the connection to improving learning opportunities for all students could be direct and immediate. “Grounding a research question in instructional problems that are experienced across multiple teachers’ classrooms helps to ensure that the answer to the question will be of sufficient scope to be relevant and significant beyond the local context” (Cai et al., 2019b , p. 115).

As a beginning researcher, determining the relevance and importance of a research problem is especially challenging. We recommend talking with advisors, other experienced researchers, and peers to test the educational importance of possible research problems and topics of study. You will also learn much more about the issue of research importance when you read Chap. 5 .

Exercise 1.7

Identify a problem in education that is closely connected to improving learning opportunities and a problem that has a less close connection. For each problem, write a brief argument (like a logical sequence of if-then statements) that connects the problem to all students’ learning opportunities.

Part III. Conducting Research as a Practice of Failing Productively

Scientific inquiry involves formulating hypotheses about phenomena that are not fully understood—by you or anyone else. Even if you are able to inform your hypotheses with lots of knowledge that has already been accumulated, you are likely to find that your prediction is not entirely accurate. This is normal. Remember, scientific inquiry is a process of constantly updating your thinking. More and better information means revising your thinking, again, and again, and again. Because you never fully understand a complicated phenomenon and your hypotheses never produce completely accurate predictions, it is easy to believe you are somehow failing.

The trick is to fail upward, to fail to predict accurately in ways that inform your next hypothesis so you can make a better prediction. Some of the best-known researchers in education have been open and honest about the many times their predictions were wrong and, based on the results of their studies and those of others, they continuously updated their thinking and changed their hypotheses.

A striking example of publicly revising (actually reversing) hypotheses due to incorrect predictions is found in the work of Lee J. Cronbach, one of the most distinguished educational psychologists of the twentieth century. In 1955, Cronbach delivered his presidential address to the American Psychological Association. Titling it “Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology,” Cronbach proposed a rapprochement between two research approaches—correlational studies that focused on individual differences and experimental studies that focused on instructional treatments controlling for individual differences. (We will examine different research approaches in Chap. 4 ). If these approaches could be brought together, reasoned Cronbach ( 1957 ), researchers could find interactions between individual characteristics and treatments (aptitude-treatment interactions or ATIs), fitting the best treatments to different individuals.

In 1975, after years of research by many researchers looking for ATIs, Cronbach acknowledged the evidence for simple, useful ATIs had not been found. Even when trying to find interactions between a few variables that could provide instructional guidance, the analysis, said Cronbach, creates “a hall of mirrors that extends to infinity, tormenting even the boldest investigators and defeating even ambitious designs” (Cronbach, 1975 , p. 119).

As he was reflecting back on his work, Cronbach ( 1986 ) recommended moving away from documenting instructional effects through statistical inference (an approach he had championed for much of his career) and toward approaches that probe the reasons for these effects, approaches that provide a “full account of events in a time, place, and context” (Cronbach, 1986 , p. 104). This is a remarkable change in hypotheses, a change based on data and made fully transparent. Cronbach understood the value of failing productively.

Closer to home, in a less dramatic example, one of us began a line of scientific inquiry into how to prepare elementary preservice teachers to teach early algebra. Teaching early algebra meant engaging elementary students in early forms of algebraic reasoning. Such reasoning should help them transition from arithmetic to algebra. To begin this line of inquiry, a set of activities for preservice teachers were developed. Even though the activities were based on well-supported hypotheses, they largely failed to engage preservice teachers as predicted because of unanticipated challenges the preservice teachers faced. To capitalize on this failure, follow-up studies were conducted, first to better understand elementary preservice teachers’ challenges with preparing to teach early algebra, and then to better support preservice teachers in navigating these challenges. In this example, the initial failure was a necessary step in the researchers’ scientific inquiry and furthered the researchers’ understanding of this issue.

We present another example of failing productively in Chap. 2 . That example emerges from recounting the history of a well-known research program in mathematics education.

Making mistakes is an inherent part of doing scientific research. Conducting a study is rarely a smooth path from beginning to end. We recommend that you keep the following things in mind as you begin a career of conducting research in education.

First, do not get discouraged when you make mistakes; do not fall into the trap of feeling like you are not capable of doing research because you make too many errors.

Second, learn from your mistakes. Do not ignore your mistakes or treat them as errors that you simply need to forget and move past. Mistakes are rich sites for learning—in research just as in other fields of study.

Third, by reflecting on your mistakes, you can learn to make better mistakes, mistakes that inform you about a productive next step. You will not be able to eliminate your mistakes, but you can set a goal of making better and better mistakes.

Exercise 1.8

How does scientific inquiry differ from everyday learning in giving you the tools to fail upward? You may find helpful perspectives on this question in other resources on science and scientific inquiry (e.g., Failure: Why Science is So Successful by Firestein, 2015).

Exercise 1.9

Use what you have learned in this chapter to write a new definition of scientific inquiry. Compare this definition with the one you wrote before reading this chapter. If you are reading this book as part of a course, compare your definition with your colleagues’ definitions. Develop a consensus definition with everyone in the course.

Part IV. Preview of Chap. 2

Now that you have a good idea of what research is, at least of what we believe research is, the next step is to think about how to actually begin doing research. This means how to begin formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses. As for all phases of scientific inquiry, there are lots of things to think about. Because it is critical to start well, we devote Chap. 2 to getting started with formulating hypotheses.

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Introduction

Impact of research, qualities of effective research, role of beliefs and values.

Research plays an important role in science. This is normally done to obtain detailed knowledge about certain aspects before an invention. Scientific research involves the study of diseases and other parameters to invent medicine and vaccines. Therefore, without research, there will be no inventions and therefore a big blow to health. Essentially research fulfils purposes that are designed before the exercise. However, apart from that, research has other implications on reality and daily lives. As a result, the effects of research go beyond the purpose it is meant for. This paper aims to take an analytical look at the concept of research. The paper will begin with a detailed look at the concept of research. Thereafter, the several similarities between different aspects of research will be analyzed. The impact of research on our daily life will also be reviewed.

Research has a lot of impact on the daily functioning of life. First and foremost, research leads to a better life by producing results that can be used to make life better. Especially as far as scientific research is concerned, the invention of vaccines and medicines makes diseases to be less of a threat to society (Calderon & Slavin 2001). Therefore, through the process of research, various methods of handling life’s problems and making the world a better place to live in are facilitated. Secondly, the very process of research affects society in several ways. The impact of the process of research has two dimensions.

The first part is the negative part in which the process of research has certain consequences for society. Unethical practices harm society. Since research is done on people in society, the practices adopted by the researchers have a lot of impacts. Scientific research has left some people with serious illnesses and injuries sometimes; it is like experimenting with people’s life. However, the process of research also has positive effects on society (McGill 1981). This is mainly because of employment opportunities, awareness and education. Research offers vast opportunities to the members of society to learn and obtain understanding about certain issues. At the same time, the participants of the research are remunerated making them earn a living from the same.

Several factors denote effective and valid research. To conduct valid or effective research, therefore, several considerations must be in place. First is the aspect of ethics, for research to be valid it must be conducted ethically. This involves the practices adopted for the research (Cresswell 2003). If the research involves risks, this must be communicated to the participants in advance. At the same time plans must be in place to compensate all those that will be affected in the course of the research. The disbursing of information is necessary before the research. This is important to take care of deception which is rampant in research. In general, proper preparation and education of the participants is the key to successful research. Another crucial requirement is the availability of resources for research.

Several forms of research involve a different processes. As a result, not all forms of research involve vigour. For instance, scientific research on diseases is more demanding than research on recreational issues. This is due to the context of the studies and the parameters involved. For instance, scientific research involves several processes and procedures which tend to take more resources. Recreational issues, on the other hand, are less involved due to the nature of the subject. The research can therefore be conducted with much ease.

Beliefs and values have a lot of impact on the process of research. People’s beliefs, therefore, influence the outcome and process of research. This is due to the relevance that beliefs and values have on people’s perception and philosophy of life. For instance, certain topics are considered sacred and secret in certain societies (Bryant 2005). Their beliefs don’t allow them to discuss certain things. Therefore in the process of collecting information from such people, it becomes very difficult to deal with them. People’s values also play a huge role. Some people are flexible in certain areas than others. Therefore, when conducting research one must understand the values of all participants. This is because their values determine how they approach certain issues. Religion plays a great role in determining the beliefs and values of people.

Research is part and parcel of life, in fact without research life will not be as it is. To live better life research is necessary; this is because research leads to innovation and invention. As far as science is concerned research leads to the invention of vaccines and drugs. Other areas of research also lead to a better understanding of the concepts involved. However, it is not only the results of research that benefit society but also the process of research. Some several opportunities and benefits that come with the process of research. As a result, the role of research in society goes beyond its real purpose. For research to be effective and valid several factors must be considered. Chief among them is the aspect of ethics. Different forms of research involve different forms of approaches. As a result, certain forms of research are more demanding than others. The influence of values and beliefs is notable as far as research is concerned. The paper has discussed the concept of research in detail. The process and impact of research have also been discussed.

Bryant, M. (2005). Managing an Effective and Ethical Research Project . London: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Calderon, M. & Slavin, R. (2001). Effective programs for Latino students. New York: Routledge.

Cresswell, J. (2003). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method approaches. New York: SAGE.

McGill, N. (1981). Effective research: a handbook for health planners. Washington: Institute for Health Planning.

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8 Reasons Why Research is Important and Steps to Conduct Research

Research is a vital component of today’s society and significantly impacts our lives. It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of research since it gives us important knowledge and insights into various facets of life. 

Research greatly influences our daily lives, from understanding diseases and discovering treatments to creating new technologies and inventions. However, this article will discuss eight factors that make research important and how it affects society. 

So, why is research important? Let’s get into the article to discover the answer to your question.

Table of Contents

Importance of Research

There are several reasons why research is important. In every aspect of our lives, research plays a vital role. These aspects may include:

• Making informed decisions, 
• Advancing technology and innovation, 
• Resolving real-world issues, 
• Enhancing education and learning, 
• Promoting economic growth, and 
• Ensuring that facts support laws and policies. 

Moreover, researchers can find new knowledge that advances our understanding of a particular topic by performing in-depth examinations and experiments. We may use this information to address problems in the real world and apply it to various sectors, including social sciences and medicine. 

We can make wiser decisions regarding our health, finances, and other matters because of the accurate and dependable knowledge we receive through research.

Why Research Matters: Uncovering the Top 8 Reasons

This section will cover the top reasons for the importance of research. Let’s get in to explore!

1. Acquire Knowledge Effectively

Research is a good method of learning about a certain subject. Researchers conduct lengthy studies and experiments to get insightful findings and collect and analyze data. By providing us deeper understanding and knowledge about the topic, this process helps us make better judgments. 

Whether you are a professional, a student, or just someone interested, research is a great way to learn new things and expand your knowledge.

2. Helps in Problem-Solving

Real-world problem-solving heavily relies on research. Researchers perform studies and experiments to determine the underlying causes of a certain problem and create methods to solve it. 

For example, social science research has assisted in addressing challenges like poverty, injustice, and prejudice, while medical research has contributed to discovering vaccinations and life-saving therapies. 

Research aids us in addressing some of the most difficult issues our society is now experiencing by offering answers supported by evidence.

3. Provides the Latest Information

Research gives us the most recent and accurate information about a given subject. Researchers revise their studies to account for changes when new revelations and data are discovered. 

This guarantees that we consistently use the most up-to-date and trustworthy information, enabling us to make better and more informed decisions. In order to succeed, you need to have access to the most recent knowledge, regardless of your line of work, whether it is business, school, or anything else.

4. Builds Credibility

Building credibility in your profession via research is beneficial. You show your knowledge and competence on a subject when you undertake research and publish your results. 

This might offer new professional growth and development prospects by establishing you as an authority in your sector. Furthermore, you demonstrate your dedication to accuracy and dependability by relying on evidence-based information, further boosting your credibility .

5. Helps in Business Success 

Businesses must conduct research if they want to succeed. Companies may find new possibilities, comprehend customer preferences, and create development plans by performing market research . 

Research also aids in spotting emerging trends and technology that might provide companies with a competitive edge. Research enables businesses to remain ahead of the curve and achieve long-term success by investing.

6. Discover and Seize Opportunities

Want to get benefits from new opportunities? Say yes to research. 

Finding and taking advantage of new opportunities is made easier by research. Research may assist you in spotting new trends and potential development areas, whether you are an entrepreneur, a student, or a professional. 

Keeping up with the most recent research will enable you to spot fresh chances for professional and personal growth, which will help you realize your objectives.

7. Introduces You to New Ideas

Another reason for the importance of research is it introduces you to various new ideas. You learn new concepts and methods of thinking through research. 

You can discover multiple theories, thoughts, and problem-solving methods by reading research papers and publications. This can deepen your comprehension of a topic and present fresh professional and personal development opportunities.

Let’s say you are an Instagram influencer and want new content ideas. By thoroughly researching new trends and problems people face nowadays, you will get multiple ideas for your content. 

8. Helps You to Reach People

Research makes reaching people and understanding their thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors possible. Researchers can gather data and use it to analyze it to acquire insights into the beliefs and attitudes of various groups of people by researching a certain issue. 

This information helps in understanding how and why individuals make decisions. Additionally, research can be used to identify consumer needs and preferences, allowing businesses to create targeted marketing campaigns.

Overall, research is a wonderful tool for interacting with people since it allows us to understand them better and make decisions based on their thoughts and feedback.

How to Improve Your Research Skills

As research is vital in every field, it is also an important task to improve your research skills. In this section, we will discover all the tips and tricks for mastering and making the most out of your research skills . 

1. Start with a Big Picture and Make Work Your Way Down

A clear idea of the larger picture is one of the most critical parts of conducting research. This entails having a wide awareness of the issue under consideration and the context in which it exists. 

Beginning with the large picture and working your way down might assist you in identifying the essential concepts and ideas most important to your research issue. Consider the situation where you are researching the impact of social media on mental health. In such a scenario, you may begin by studying the origins and development of social media, as well as its various uses and negative effects. 

You may then focus on certain platforms and their impact on mental health. However, you can find the most relevant sources of information and ensure your research is thorough and well-informed by having a clear awareness of the broader picture.

2. Identify Reliable Sources

Finding trustworthy sources of information is the next step after having a firm grasp of the larger picture. Peer-reviewed publications published by respected publishers and founded on reliable research methodologies are considered reliable. 

There are several methods for locating reliable sources of information. One of the most effective approaches is utilizing academic databases like JSTOR, Google Scholar, and PubMed.

These databases enable you to look for publications that have undergone peer review and have been issued by respectable publishers. To find trustworthy information sources, you may also speak with subject-respective experts, librarians, and other experts in your industry.

3. Validate Information from Multiple Sources

The next step is to validate the data you acquired from multiple sources after identifying your information sources. To make sure the data you’ve obtained from various sources is reliable and consistent, you should compare and contrast it.

Searching for confirming evidence from several sources is one technique to verify the information. Similar findings from several sources increase the likelihood that the data is accurate. 

To confirm that the writers of the sources you are utilizing are competent to write on the subject, you may also verify their qualifications and experience.

4. Take in New Information

Constantly absorbing fresh information is another important component of strengthening your research abilities. This entails staying up-to-date with the most recent findings and advancements inside and outside your profession. 

Reading blogs, signing up for academic journals and newsletters, attending conferences, and taking seminars are all fantastic methods to keep up with the most recent developments and trends in your profession.

5. Stay Organized  

Keeping organized is one of the most important aspects of conducting research. This entails recording the sources you have used, making notes, and putting your thoughts and ideas in a simple structure to find and comprehend.

By making it simple to save and manage sources, create citations and bibliographies, and make notes on the sources you have used, using a citation manager like Mendeley, EndNote, or Zotero may help you keep organized. 

You can also organize your thoughts and ideas to access and comprehend them by generating an outline or mind map. This helps you in staying on course and ensuring that your research is thorough and organized.

Steps to Conduct Research for Beginners

For new researchers, doing research may be a difficult task. However, it can be a rewarding and enjoyable experience with the right approach and mindset. 

Here are some steps that new researchers can take to conduct effective research:

1. Define Your Research Question

Defining your research question is the initial stage in every research project. It must be precise, understandable, and comprehensible. You may stay focused and be guided through the research process using a solid research question.

2. Conduct a Literature Review

It’s very important to perform a literature review before beginning your research. To do this, you must locate and read the relevant literature on the subject of your study. It can support your study and help you find gaps in existing knowledge and possible research avenues.

3. Choose Your Research Methodology

There are various research methodologies you can use in your research. These may include: 

• Interviews, 
• Experiments, and 
• Case studies. 

Selecting the technique that best suits your research topic is important to guarantee that you gather the data you need to answer your research question.

4. Collect and Analyze Data

Data collection may begin once your research topic has been established, a literature review has been completed, and your methodology has been decided upon. This includes gathering and recording data from various sources, including surveys, interviews, and experiments.

After gathering data, you must analyze it to conclude your research topic. Depending on the data you have gathered, you may need to employ statistical analysis, coding, or other procedures.

5. Interpret Your Results

Following data analysis, it’s critical to interpret your findings. This entails interpreting the information and coming to conclusions that address your research issue. When interpreting your results, it’s crucial to be unbiased and objective.

6. Communicate Your Findings

Sharing your results is the last stage. This entails succinctly and clearly articulating your study topic, technique, data gathering, analysis, and interpretation. To display your findings, you can utilize a variety of forms, including reports, presentations, and articles.

Although it requires patience, focus, and critical thinking, conducting research can be rewarding and interesting.

Why is Marketing Research Important?

Any company that wants to succeed in today’s competitive business environment must invest in marketing research. It entails compiling and evaluating data on customers, rivals, and the market at large. 

This information is utilized to create efficient marketing plans, enhance goods and services, and make wise business decisions.

1. Better Business-Client Understanding  

The ability to better understand clients is one of the main benefits of marketing research for firms. Businesses can discover patterns and trends that might guide their marketing strategy by gathering data on customer behavior, preferences, and attitudes. 

For instance, if a company discovers that a substantial portion of its clients favors eco-friendly items, it may utilize this knowledge to create and promote goods that satisfy this need.

2. It Helps in Staying Competitive

By monitoring the tactics and products of rival companies, marketing research also helps organizations stay competitive. Businesses can find ways to set themselves apart and obtain a competitive edge by examining the strengths and shortcomings of their rivals.

3. It Helps in Identifying Potential Risks

Additionally, marketing research can assist companies in identifying and reducing potential risks. Businesses may foresee prospective market shifts and modify their plans appropriately by gathering data on market trends and customer behavior. 

This can help them avoid expensive errors and adjust rapidly to evolving situations.

In conclusion, research is important in many facets of life, whether for personal or professional reasons. It is impossible to neglect the importance of research since it gives us the knowledge and information we need to solve issues, innovate, and make wise decisions. 

By strengthening our research abilities, we can efficiently acquire and analyze data, maintain organization, and utilize priceless resources like libraries and specialists. 

Moreover, research is useful in marketing because it helps companies understand their customers, assess the success of their marketing campaigns, and spot possible dangers. Research is an effective instrument that we may use to further our objectives and improve the world.

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Understanding Science

How science REALLY works...

• Understanding Science 101
• Misconceptions
• Scientific ideas lead to ongoing research.
• Answering one scientific question frequently leads to additional questions to be investigated.

Misconception:  Science is complete.

Correction:  Science is an ongoing process. There is much more yet to learn.  Read more about it.

Scientific ideas lead to ongoing research

Most typically in science, answering one question inspires deeper and more detailed questions for further research. Similarly, coming up with a fruitful idea to explain a previously anomalous observation frequently leads to new expectations and areas of research. So, in a sense, the more we know, the more we know what we don’t yet know. As our knowledge expands, so too does our awareness of what we don’t yet understand. For example, James Watson and Francis Crick’s proposal (based on evidence collected by Rosalind Franklin)that DNA takes the form of a double helix helped answer a burning question in biology about the chemical structure of DNA. And while it helped answer one question, it also generated new expectations (e.g., that DNA is copied via base pairing), raised many new questions (e.g., how does DNA store information?), and contributed to whole new fields of research (e.g., genetic engineering). Like this work on the structure of DNA, most scientific research generates new expectations, inspires new questions, and leads to new discoveries.

A SCIENCE PROTOTYPE: RUTHERFORD AND THE ATOM

Niels Bohr built upon Ernest Rutherford’s work to develop the model of the atom most commonly portrayed in textbooks: a nucleus orbited by electrons at different levels. Despite the new questions it raised (e.g., why do orbiting, negatively-charged electrons not spiral into the positively-charged nucleus?), this model was powerful and, with further modification, led to a wide range of accurate predictions and new discoveries, including predicting the outcome of chemical reactions, determining the composition of distant stars, and conceiving of the atomic bomb.

Rutherford’s story continues as we examine each item on the Science Checklist. To find out how this investigation measures up to the last item of the checklist, read on.

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Unit 6: Qual vs Quant.

28 Qualitative Methods in Communication Research

Qualitative methods in communication research.

In communication research, both quantitative and qualitative methods are essential for understanding different aspects of communication processes and effects. Here’s how qual methods can be applied:

• Conducting in-depth interviews to explore individuals’ experiences and perceptions of their interpersonal relationships
• Conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their experiences, opinions, and feelings about communication topics.
• Facilitating group discussions to gather diverse perspectives on communication issues within relationships.
• Facilitating group discussions to gather diverse perspectives on communication issues or media content.
• Observing and documenting communication practices within specific social or cultural groups to understand their norms and behaviors.
• Observing and documenting communication practices within specific cultural or social groups to understand their communication norms and behaviors.
• Thematic Analysis : Analyzing qualitative data from interviews, focus groups, or media content to identify recurring themes and patterns, for example, patterns in interpersonal communication and relationships.

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The importance of social support

How social support reduces stress, making the most of your social network, how to strengthen your social connections, overcoming common obstacles, social support for stress relief.

Feeling stressed, anxious, or burned out? Close relationships and social connections can be a natural way to manage daily or chronic stress and maintain your mental health and well-being.

When your car breaks down, you’re grieving the loss of a loved one, or you’re going through a rough time at work, supportive people in your life can rush in to help. But a reliable social support network isn’t just useful in emergency situations. Strong relationships with friends and family members can also bolster your mood, improve your outlook, and preserve your mental well-being.

Research shows that people with high levels of social support seem to be more resilient in the face of stressful situations. They also have a lower perception of stress in general and have less of a physiological response to life’s stressors. Maybe that blown transmission doesn’t seem so devastating when your friend is with you in the car. Or perhaps a normally stressful errand feels more like an adventure when your sibling or partner tags along.

Social support can also provide you with comfort even when the stress feels completely unbearable. Perhaps you’re feeling physically exhausted or emotionally numb from long hours at a high-stress job, caring for an ailing loved one, or coming to terms with a traumatic event. Having the love and support of people around you can help mediate even the negative health effects of burnout or ease the psychological distress that comes with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). So, whether you’re dealing with chronic stress or day-to-day frustrations, reaching out to others can be a go-to strategy for managing stress.

Other benefits of social support

Although stress relief is one major benefit, social support is also essential to maintaining your overall mental health. Connecting with others can:

• Increase happiness . If you want a quick mood boost, schedule time with a friend. Research shows that good social relations improve overall happiness. On the other hand, loneliness and low social support is linked to depression and anxiety .
• Improve physical health . Social isolation is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer , high blood pressure , and inflammation. Loneliness can also have a negative effect on your immune system.
• Improve cognitive functioning . Social isolation and loneliness can accelerate cognitive decline. Maintaining an active social life is especially important for people who are at risk of dementia or in the early stages of the disease.
• Ease the pain and loneliness of grief . The death of a loved one or loss of a relationship can make you feel alone in your grief . Friends and family members can offer emotional support in troubling times.
• Make you feel understood . A friend who listens and is able to empathize can help you feel less lonely. This helps reduce feelings of isolation and gives a boost to your self-esteem.
• Offer new perspectives and aid in problem-solving . If you’re grappling with a difficult decision or stuck in a pattern of negative thinking, a friend’s advice or words of encouragement can offer guidance. In some cases, talking with someone close can even help you identify the root causes of your emotional distress.
• Reinforce healthy habits . The people around you might influence you to make decisions that further enhance your mental and physical health, such as exercising regularly or quitting smoking .
• Add meaning to your life . Close relationships can help give you a stronger sense of meaning and purpose in life. In turn, you might be less likely to engage in risky behavior and more likely to take care of yourself.
• Increase your lifespan . Research even shows an association between supportive social relationships and a longer life. This could be due to the fact that relationships ease stress that in the long-term can harm the body and take years off your life.

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Whenever you perceive a threat—anything from physical danger to social humiliation to sudden financial trouble—your sympathetic nervous system springs into action, releasing stress hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol. You’ll notice your blood pressure increases, your muscles tense, and your rate of breathing quickens. These effects aren’t always comfortable, but they’re intended to help you fight or flee from the perceived danger.

While this “fight or flight” response has a biological purpose, chronic stress can keep triggering it, which over time can cause serious health problems. It can impair your immune system, increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, and exacerbate existing problems like depression and memory difficulties.

Social interaction can act as a counter to the “fight or flight” response. Interacting with other people triggers your body to release hormones that create a sense of calm and other positive feelings. It’s your body’s way of encouraging you to drop your guard and relax. As this happens, your nervous system returns to a more normal and balanced state.

[Read: Stress Symptoms, Signs, and Causes]

Imagine that an interaction with a workplace bully leaves you feeling tense and defensive. Some kind words or validation from a friendly coworker can help you relax and emotionally recover from the incident. If you’re grieving the sudden loss of a loved one or coping with a distressing diagnosis , for example, your friends can’t make the problem go away. However, they can make you feel heard, loved, and ease the stress of the challenges you’re facing.

Increasing the stress-relieving benefits

While a text or phone call from a friend can offer some comfort when you’re dealing with stress, face-to-face interactions are far more beneficial. This is likely because factors such as vocal tone, eye contact, and physical touch can all play a role in calming our nervous systems. To better manage stress, try to prioritize in-person connections over calls, texts, or messaging.

In addition, the closer you are with the person you’re interacting with, the more your body releases calming hormones. Spending an afternoon with your best friend, for example, will improve your mood more than a brief interaction with a stranger. With that in mind, it’s important to surround yourself with the right people—those who care about you—and then put in effort to maintain those relationships. By doing so, you’ll tap into a reliable source of emotional support and stress relief.

If you want to reap the mental health benefits of close social ties, you’ll need to put in effort to build and maintain relationships. This applies even when you’re not personally feeling stressed out. A friendship is a two-way street. Be there for your friends when they need support and they’ll be there for you. Here are some tips to ensure your friendships are mutually beneficial and uplifting.

Schedule time with friends or reach out, even when you’re feeling good . This seems like a simple step, but it’s easy to neglect relationships when your days are packed with work and errands. Set aside time in the day to respond to missed phone calls or text messages. Even during busy weeks, try to schedule in face-to-face time with your favorite people. Contact with a close friend can offer some emotional comfort in an otherwise hectic day.

Don’t exert too much pressure . Be flexible and understanding of others’ needs. Don’t try to guilt-trip friends if they have to cancel plans or overwhelm loved ones with too many texts or calls. If you need to have a long conversation or vent your frustrations, ask if your friend has the emotional bandwidth and the time to listen.

Try to put in equal effort . In healthy relationships, one person isn’t putting in all of the effort. If a friend is always driving out of town to visit you, offer to visit them instead. When you’re the only one doing all of the work, resentment and stress levels can build.

Practice forgiveness . No one’s perfect. Even the people who care about you most will hurt your feelings or misunderstand you on occasion. Be willing to forgive and remember that we all make mistakes.

Don’t fear vulnerability . If you fear looking weak or emotional, you’ll have a hard time finding stress relief in your social connections. Opening up about your fears, insecurities, and worries will not only help you feel better, it will help you develop deeper bonds with others as well.

Show appreciation . A simple message or card can express your appreciation to a friend for being there for you. You don’t have to wait until the holidays or their birthdays.

Keep your ego in check . Don’t make every situation or conversation about you. Take a genuine interest in the other person’s life and resist the urge to compete and compare your lives. Be happy for a friend when you see them succeed.

Be a good listener . It’s the act of social connection that eases stress and enriches your life. You don’t have to solve all of your friends’ problems any more than they need to solve yours. Make active listening a core part of your relationships. Put away your cell phone so you can be present, set aside judgments, and really listen to what the other person is trying to communicate.

For more tips, see Effective Communication .

Identifying unhealthy friendships

Not all relationships will help to alleviate stress. Some friends and family members can actually increase your stress levels and worsen your mood. You might already know someone who only uses your time together to complain but never listens. Or maybe you know coworkers who are argumentative and gossipy, which makes your job more difficult.

Some signs of toxic friendships include:

• The other person tries to tear you down . They might veil their insults as “jokes” or claim you’re too sensitive if they hurt your feelings.
• They frequently gossip or talk negatively about others . This stream of negativity can bring down your mood or make you wonder if they’re gossiping about you as well.
• They only focus on themselves . They may come to you whenever they need to vent, but they never seem to have time to listen to your problems.
• They don’t accept you as you are . Maybe they try to pressure you into doing things you’ve said you don’t enjoy or change how you dress or behave.
• You don’t feel comfortable around them . You might feel as though you’re walking on eggshells when interacting with them. Perhaps they seem overly judgmental, so you withhold opinions or emotions.

If you have friends like these in your life, you don’t necessarily have to sever ties completely. However, it might be best to spend less time with them so you can focus on friendships that leave you feeling more positive, hopeful, and relaxed.

While many of us have lots of “friends” on social media or acquaintances at work, school, or in the neighborhood, we don’t always have many close, supportive relationships. One way to strengthen your social support network is by deepening these existing ties with acquaintances.

Perhaps you make daily small talk with someone at a coffee shop or you exchange jokes with someone in the office. Outside of those surface-level interactions, they don’t know much about you and you don’t know much about them. But start to think of them as potential friends.

[Read: Making Good Friends]

Invite a casual acquaintance to an outing . Keep things low pressure. Go out for coffee, a walk, or to see a movie. It doesn’t necessarily have to be a one-on-one interaction, but hanging out together gives you both an opportunity to get to know each other better.

Build on common interests . If you’re looking to share a hobby or find a workout buddy, for example, consider acquaintances that have similar goals or interests. Plan a movie or game night and invite acquaintances who share your tastes.

Offer your time . If a colleague is moving across town, offer to help them. You can also suggest carpooling to work with coworkers or to other events with acquaintances.

Reach out to an old friend . You can look for old high school or college acquaintances on social media. Schedule a meetup if they have time and chat about how life has changed for both of you. Just don’t expect the individual to be exactly the same person you used to know. We all change over time.

Remember that different people have different opinions . Good friends don’t have to agree on everything. Acknowledging your differences can be a great way to gain a new perspective.

Be mindful of your expectations . Some people become fast friends. Others need more time to open up. Don’t try to force a friendship to follow some sort of timeline; that’s a recipe for unnecessary stress. Instead, allow your bond to evolve naturally.

Meeting new people

If you’re new to an area or just generally feel alone, you might want to build up a new social support network. Here are some ways to make new friends or meet new acquaintances.

Join a local club . If you love the great outdoors, consider joining a local hiking group. Sites like Meetup.com make it easy to find and join local groups, including book clubs and gaming groups.

Take a class . If you’d like to learn how to improve your cooking or crafting skills, take a class at a community college. By opening yourself up to new experiences, you can walk away with more skills and new friends with similar interests.

Attend events . Look for nearby concerts, book readings, gallery openings, and theater performances. Or you could visit a bar during a big sports event to meet other people who share enthusiasm for the local team.

Volunteer . Volunteering can increase happiness and improve your overall mental health. It also happens to be a good way to meet new people with values that match your own. Consider volunteering your time at local establishments, such as community centers, or during events like 5Ks or food drives.

It isn’t always easy to build the social connections that can help you to manage stress and improve your mental health. While some people just seem to be social butterflies by nature, others have to put in a little more effort. Social anxiety, depression, or an introverted disposition, for example, can make it harder to expand or maintain your social network.

Even if you find social interaction highly stressful, though, there are strategies to help you cope.

Managing social anxiety

If you have an intense fear of social situations, you may feel like people are always judging you or worry that you’ll make an embarrassing mistake. Those fears can lead to physical symptoms such as shortness of breath and nausea. You might even have developed a habit of staying quiet or avoiding interactions with others.

[Read: Social Anxiety Disorder]

Cast your focus outward . It’s easy to get distracted by the voice in your head that’s criticizing your every move. A negative inner monologue can even leave you feeling too paralyzed to speak. Try to shift your focus to the other person. Be curious. What are they trying to verbally communicate? What’s their body language like? Are they fidgeting? Why? This change in focus can help reduce self-consciousness and allow you to be more present.

Challenge negative assumptions . Do you think everyone in the room noticed that you misspoke? Maybe you’re imagining them all judging you. But thoughts like this rarely reflect reality. Try challenging them with more realistic assumptions. It’s likely that no one noticed or they were too distracted by their own inner monologues. Even if they did notice, they’re probably not judging you for a relatable mistake.

Practice . Socializing is just like any other skill. No one’s perfect, but you can get better with practice. Did you have a few awkward moments when talking to a new friend? Be patient with yourself. By taking small steps and acknowledging positive interactions, you can become more confident.

Socializing while coping with depression

Depression can sap your energy and lead you to withdraw from interacting with others. However, isolation just increases stress and worsens your mood, creating a vicious downward cycle that can be hard to break.

[Read: Coping with Depression]

Know that you’re not a burden . It’s not uncommon for people with depression to avoid reaching out to loved ones. You might feel like you’re bothering them or that they have other people they’d rather spend time with. Recognize this as a form of cognitive distortion. You’re likely making a false assumption and anticipating a negative reaction that won’t occur. Challenge your assumptions and take the proactive step of reaching out.

Create small social goals . These goals might be as simple as calling a family member or going for a quick coffee with a friend. The initial step of making contact can help ease you into longer social situations. Even if you decide that you don’t want to follow through on a longer interaction, you’ve at least let others know that you’re thinking about them.

Walk in nature with a friend . Spending time in nature can reduce rumination and physical activity can help manage the symptoms of depression. Combine exercise, nature, and socializing by inviting a close friend on a stroll through a local park or on a hike.

Don’t force yourself into situations that worsen your depression . Not every social situation is going to have a positive impact on your mood. If you think a noisy party or pessimistic acquaintance will only bring your mood down, it’s okay to avoid the situation. Check in with your emotions after each social event. Do you feel better or worse than you did beforehand? Make a note of those feelings and use them to inform your future decisions.

Balancing introversion and social life

People commonly conflate introversion with shyness. It’s true that some introverts are shy or experience social anxiety. However, you can be an introvert and still be at ease in social situations.

Introversion can mean that certain situations drain your energy while others energize you. Maybe you like going to parties but feel tired or overwhelmed within a few hours. Here are some tips on handling social situations.

Take short breaks . If you’re spending a holiday with the family, you might feel fatigued by all of the interactions—even if they are enjoyable. Slip away into a quiet room or go for a walk on your own. After some brief alone time, you might feel ready to socialize again.

Be comfortable with turning down invitations . Imagine that someone invites you to a party on Saturday night, but you already have a busy weekend planned. It’s okay to skip the party if you think it will leave you feeling overwhelmed or fatigued. You can always extend an invitation to hang out one-on-one with the party host at a later date.

Make your needs known . Be honest and upfront about how socializing can tire you out. The people who care about you most will be understanding and accommodating. You’re also likely to find that some people in your social support network are also introverts with similar needs.

Humans are social animals. Even if being around people can sometimes seem overwhelming, intimidating, or tiring, you’ll likely feel a sense of calm when you’re around your closest friends or family. Whether work has you stressed out, you’re dealing with a financial crisis, or you’re coping with a life-threatening illness, social support is vital to managing all manner of stressors, from daily concerns to your worst fears.

More Information

• The health benefits of strong relationships - How good connections and social support can improve health and increase longevity. (Harvard Health Publishing)
• The risks of social isolation - The effects of social isolation and loneliness on physical, mental, and cognitive health. (APA)
• Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders. (2013). In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . American Psychiatric Association. Link
• Cacciatore, J., Thieleman, K., Fretts, R., & Jackson, L. B. (2021). What is good grief support? Exploring the actors and actions in social support after traumatic grief. PLOS ONE , 16(5), e0252324. Link
• Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very Happy People. Psychological Science , 13(1), 81–84. Link
• Dour, H. J., Wiley, J. F., Roy-Byrne, P., Stein, M. B., Sullivan, G., Sherbourne, C. D., Bystritsky, A., Rose, R. D., & Craske, M. G. (2014). PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT MEDIATES ANXIETY AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOM CHANGES FOLLOWING PRIMARY CARE INTERVENTION: Research Article: Social Support Mediates Symptom Change. Depression and Anxiety , 31(5), 436–442. Link
• Exercise is an all-natural treatment to fight depression—Harvard Health . (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2022, from Link
• Golaszewski, N. M., LaCroix, A. Z., Godino, J. G., Allison, M. A., Manson, J. E., King, J. J., Weitlauf, J. C., Bea, J. W., Garcia, L., Kroenke, C. H., Saquib, N., Cannell, B., Nguyen, S., & Bellettiere, J. (2022). Evaluation of Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Cardiovascular Disease Among Older Women in the US. JAMA Network Open , 5(2), e2146461. Link
• Hawkley, L. C., Thisted, R. A., Masi, C. M., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). Loneliness predicts increased blood pressure: 5-year cross-lagged analyses in middle-aged and older adults. Psychology and Aging , 25(1), 132–141. Link
• Kraav, S.-L., Lehto, S. M., Kauhanen, J., Hantunen, S., & Tolmunen, T. (2021). Loneliness and social isolation increase cancer incidence in a cohort of Finnish middle-aged men. A longitudinal study. Psychiatry Research , 299, 113868. Link
• Lara, E., Caballero, F. F., Rico‐Uribe, L. A., Olaya, B., Haro, J. M., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., & Miret, M. (2019). Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 34(11), 1613–1622. Link
• Lee, S. L., Pearce, E., Ajnakina, O., Johnson, S., Lewis, G., Mann, F., Pitman, A., Solmi, F., Sommerlad, A., Steptoe, A., Tymoszuk, U., & Lewis, G. (2021). The association between loneliness and depressive symptoms among adults aged 50 years and older: A 12-year population-based cohort study. The Lancet Psychiatry , 8(1), 48–57. Link
• (PDF) EFFECT OF VOLUNTEERISM ON MENTAL HEALTH AND HAPPINESS . (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2022, from Link
• Pilcher, J. J., & Bryant, S. A. (2016). Implications of Social Support as a Self-Control Resource. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience , 10. Link
• Ruisoto, P., Ramírez, M. R., García, P. A., Paladines-Costa, B., Vaca, S. L., & Clemente-Suárez, V. J. (2021). Social Support Mediates the Effect of Burnout on Health in Health Care Professionals. Frontiers in Psychology , 11, 623587. Link
• Seltzer, L. J., Prososki, A. R., Ziegler, T. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2012). Instant messages vs. speech: Hormones and why we still need to hear each other. Evolution and Human Behavior , 33(1), 42–45. Link
• Simon, N., Roberts, N. P., Lewis, C. E., van Gelderen, M. J., & Bisson, J. I. (2019). Associations between perceived social support, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD): Implications for treatment. European Journal of Psychotraumatology , 10(1), 1573129. Link
• Umberson, D., & Karas Montez, J. (2010). Social Relationships and Health: A Flashpoint for Health Policy. Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 51(1_suppl), S54–S66. Link
• Vila, J. (2021). Social Support and Longevity: Meta-Analysis-Based Evidence and Psychobiological Mechanisms. Frontiers in Psychology , 12, 717164. Link

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Recognizing the Signs of Autism in Babies

• Signs of Autism in Babies
• When Your Baby Shows Signs of Autism

How To Handle an Autism Diagnosis

Watching your baby grow is an unforgettable experience. But while every child develops at their own speed, failing to reach certain milestones can raise red flags that may point to autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Autism is a complex neurological and developmental disorder that can affect social skills like playing, learning, and communicating. Repetitive behaviors, obsessive interests, and challenges with food and eating are other common symptoms, but every autistic person is unique. Individual cases of autism also fall on a spectrum ranging from mild to severe. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that autism affects 1 in 36 children today, and it's four times as likely to impact boys than girls.

It's rare to see signs of autism in newborns but some parents do. Here's how to recognize the early signs of autism in infants and why prompt diagnosis is key to managing the condition.

ronnachaipark/Getty Images

What Are the Signs of Autism in Newborns and Toddlers?

Some parents begin to recognize early signs of autism when their baby is around 6 to 12 months old—and maybe even earlier, says Thomas Frazier, PhD , a clinical psychologist, autism researcher, professor of psychology at John Carroll University, and chief science officer of Autism Speaks.

Of course, all babies develop on different timelines. But it can be helpful to know what to look for when it comes to development. For example, babies with autism sometimes fail to communicate through sounds or gestures and may not respond to social stimulation.

What Causes Autism in Infants?

Doctors don't know exactly what causes autism , but it's believed to be a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Known risk factors for autism include the following:

• Having a sibling with autism
• Premature birth
• Low birth weight
• Pregnancy or delivery complications
• Certain genetic or chromosomal conditions
• Being conceived by parents of advanced age
• Being born male

It's important to note, however, that there's no link between vaccines and autism .

"Pay attention to whether or not the baby is reacting to social information and the environment. Within the first year of life, babies start to babble and use gestures like pointing," says Dr. Frazier, adding that typically babies smile at their caregivers. "Baby noises should have some social function as well, and they should try communicating with parents."

It's important to note that the following signs aren't conclusive evidence of autism. "They're simply things we look for to determine if we need to further assess the baby," says Mandi Silverman, an associate psychologist at Positive Developments. Additionally, another social or developmental factor may be at play in addition to or rather than autism.

Signs of autism in newborns ages 0 to 3 months

Possible early signs of autism in newborns include:

• Not following moving objects with their eyes
• Sensitivity to loud noises
• Limited facial expression
• Poor facial recognition (especially new faces)

Signs of autism in babies ages 4 to 7 months

Possible signs of autism in babies aged 4 to 7 months include:

• Showing disinterest in certain sounds (such as not turning to locate where sounds are coming from)
• Perceived lack of affection
• Limited babbling
• Limited verbal expression (like not laughing or making squealing sounds)
• Not reaching for objects
• Not grasping or holding onto objects
• Demonstrating limited facial expressions and/or emotional reactivity (such as not smiling on their own)

Signs of autism in babies ages 8 to 12 months

Possible signs of autism in older babies aged 8 to 12 months include:

• May not crawl
• May avoid eye contact
• Limited or incomprehensible speech
• May refrain from using gestures such as waving or shaking their head
• May not point to objects or pictures
• May appear unbalanced or unable to stand even when supported

What To Do If Your Baby Exhibits Signs of Autism

If you notice some potential signs of autism in your baby, Dr. Frazier advises scheduling a visit with your child's pediatrician . You'll discuss developmental concerns, and the doctor will evaluate your baby for autism. "We have evidence that suggests the quicker you can get a diagnosis, the earlier you can enroll in developmental and behavioral interventions," says Dr. Frazier.

Early intervention is meant to help autistic children develop to their full potential. The brain can respond to treatments more effectively at younger ages, which can make interventions more effective. As your child gets older, those interventions might include speech therapy, occupational therapy, mental health counseling, and whatever else you and your health care team believe will help your child thrive. The ultimate goal is "making the symptoms more manageable and enhancing life as much as possible," says Dr. Silverman.

While an autism diagnosis may seem worrisome, autistic people can and do lead happy and fulfilling lives. Learning your child is on the spectrum is not a bad thing, nor should it be viewed in a negative light. Still, you may be wondering how you can best handle your child's condition.

Autism Treatments and Therapies

Depending on your child’s symptoms, one or more of these therapies may be useful:

• Cognitive behavioral therapy
• Behavior management therapy
• Physical therapy
• Speech therapy
• Occupational therapy
• Nutritional therapy
• Educational interventions
• Sensory processing therapy
• Animal therapy, art therapy, and chiropractic care can also be helpful.

While there are no guarantees or set answers, the prognosis for a child with autism can be influenced by early intervention and treatment, according to the Autism Research Institute (ARI). While autism is not reversible, there are evidence-based treatments that can help and support people with autism.

That said, it's important to note that many autistic people do not want to be "treated" or "cured." Many view their autism diagnosis as a difference that makes them exactly who they are—and who they were meant to be.

Data & Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2023.

Autism Spectrum Disorder: Communication Problems in Children. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders . 2020.

Preterm or Early Term Birth and Risk of Autism . American Academy of Pediatrics . 2021.

Related Disorders . Autism Research Institute . 2024.

Balance Performance in Autism: A Brief Overview . Frontiers in Psychology. 2018.

Prognosis . Autism Research Institute . 2024.

Comprehensive Management of Autism: Current Evidence . Indian J Psychol Med . 2017.

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Memory: from the laboratory to everyday life

Daniel l. schacter.

Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

One of the key goals of memory research is to develop a basic understanding of the nature and characteristics of memory processes and systems. Another important goal is to develop useful applications of basic research to everyday life. This editorial considers two lines of work that illustrate some of the prospects for applying memory research to everyday life: interpolated quizzing to enhance learning in educational settings, and specificity training to enhance memory and associated functions in individuals who have difficulties remembering details of their past experiences.

The study of memory lias progressed rapidly over the past few decades, and as illustrated by the papers in the current issue, it remains a thriving endeavor with many exciting new discoveries and ideas. But memory is not only a target for laboratory study; it is also fundamentally important in many domains of everyday life. This point is nicely illustrated by several articles in this volume addressing memory changes in neurological and psychiatric conditions that can have a profound impact on an individual's ability to function in daily life. Memory research has also been applied extensively in legal settings, where such issues as how to construct effective lineups and how to deal with the inaccuracy of eyewitness testimony are of paramount importance. 1 , 2 In this editorial, I discuss briefly some recent applications of memory research in educational and clinical settings that show promise for providing meaningful benefits in everyday life.

Enhancing attention and memory in educational settings

During the past several years, a rapidly expanding number of studies have attempted to apply principles and methods of cognitive psychology to educational settings. For example, one basic question concerns whether memory research can be used to increase the effectiveness with which students study for exams. In a recent comprehensive review, Dunlosky and colleagues 3 evaluated the effectiveness of ten different study methods, and characterized each one as being of either high, moderate, or low utility based on available research. Some of the popular methods commonly embraced by students—including rereading, summarizing, and highlighting—received low utility assessments. Only two techniques, both supported by data from numerous laboratory studies, received high utility assessments: distributed study, which involves spreading out study activities so that more time intervenes between repetitions of the to-be-learned information (as opposed to mass study or “cramming”), and practice testing, where students are intermittently given brief quizzes about what they have learned prior to taking a formal test.

The beneficial effects of practice testing for students are based mainly on studies demonstrating that the act of retrieving information can be a highly effective means of strengthening memory for the retrieved information. 4 Recent work in my laboratory has used a variant of the practice testing technique in an attempt to enhance attention and memory during video recorded lectures. 5 Students frequently experience lapses of attention both during classroom 6 and video 7 lectures. For example, when probed during either a classroom or online lecture regarding whether they are attending to the lecture or mind wandering to other topics, students indicated on approximately 40% of probes that they were mind wandering; not surprisingly, the extent of mind wandering was negatively correlated with retention of lecture content. 6 - 8

Our study 5 focused on video recorded lectures because they are a key element in online education, which has exploded during recent years, partly as a result of the development of massive open online courses (MOOCs). Consequently, understanding how to enhance learning from video lectures could have important implications for online education. Participants watched a 21-minute video recorded statistics lecture divided into four equal segments. After each lecture segment, all participants did math problems for a minute, after which the tested group received brief quizzes on each lecture segment that took about 2 minutes each; the nontested group continued to work on math problems for an additional 2 minutes and only received a test for the final segment; and the restudy group was shown, but not tested on, the same material as the tested group for each of the segments preceding the final segment. After the final lecture segment, all three groups received a quiz for that segment, and a few minutes later they also received a final test for the entire lecture. At random times during the lecture, participants in all groups were probed about whether they were paying attention to the lecture or mind wandering off to other topics.

Participants in the nontested and re-study groups indicated that they were mind wandering in response to about 40% of the probes, but the incidence of mind wandering was cut in half, to about 20%, in the tested group. Moreover, participants in the tested group retained significantly more information from the final segment of the lecture than did participants in the other two groups, and they also retained significantly more information on the final test of the entire lecture than did the other groups. While it is encouraging that interpolated quizzing can dramatically reduce the incidence of mind wandering and increase retention, the results reported must be treated with some caution, both because they were obtained only with a single lecture on a single topic, and also because it is unclear whether the benefits of interpolated quizzing persist across multiple lectures or in actual online (or live) classes. There is reason for optimism, however, because other kinds of practice testing have produced increased learning in classroom settings. 9

Increasing the specificity of memory

Consider next some recent research concerning a phenomenon that has been associated with a variety of troublesome symptoms in depressed individuals: reduced specificity of autobiographical memories. Several studies have shown that when asked to recall memories of everyday life experiences, depressed individuals tend to provide less specific detail about what happened during those experiences than do nondepressed controls. 10 This reduced specificity has been linked with problems such as excessive rumination and difficulties handling everyday interpersonal situations. 10 - 12 In light of these findings, a natural question concerns whether it is possible to increase memory specificity in depressed individuals, and whether such increases are associated with improvements in any of the problematic symptoms that had been linked with reduced memory specificity in previous research.

Recent studies 13 , 14 have addressed this question by demonstrating that several sessions of training that attempts to boost the specificity of memory retrieval in depressed patients (ie, practice with feedback in generating detailed, specific memories) increases the posttraining specificity of patients' autobiographical memories, even when controlling for associated improvements in depression. Neshat-Doost et al 13 reported that the gains from specificity training were maintained at a 2-month follow-up, and no improvements were evident in a control group. Raes et al 14 showed that increases in memory specificity after training were associated with improvements in everyday social problem solving and rumination. Although further research needs to be carried out to pinpoint exactly what features of memory specificity training are responsible for the observed improvements, the results to date are encouraging, and highlight how basic knowledge of the memory characteristics of a clinical population can be used to formulate an effective intervention.

Targeting autobiographical memory specificity seems especially useful because a growing number of studies have emphasized that autobiographical or episodic memory is used not just as a basis for remembering past experiences, but also for imagining possible future experiences 15 and related functions such as personal and social problem solving. 16 - 19 Consistent with these findings, recent research in our lab provides evidence that an induction aimed at increasing memory specificity in young and old adults had beneficial effects on both groups' performance of subsequent tasks that required either remembering past experiences or imagining possible future experiences. 20 Importantly, the effects of the induction were selective in two ways. First, the specificity induction (compared with a control induction) produced increases in the number of episodic details (eg, who, what, where, when) that participants remembered or imagined, but had no effect on the number of remembered or imagined semantic details (eg, general facts, commentary, impressions). Second, the influence of the specificity induction was restricted to memory and imagination tasks; it had no effect on a task that required participants to describe a picture of an everyday scene. These findings suggest that the induction targeted episodic memory in particular, and more generally, that specificity inductions can be used as experimental tools to distinguish among cognitive processes and representations that contribute to memory and related functions.

Concluding comments

The research reviewed in the preceding sections highlights ways in which memory research can be applied to educational and clinical settings. An important next step for this kind of research will be to investigate the neural mechanisms that mediate the observed effects on cognitive processes. How can we characterize the neural changes associated with improved attention and memory as a result of interpolated quizzing during lectures? What kinds of changes in brain activity are associated with the improvements produced by memory specificity training and how can they help to pinpoint the specific processes that are affected? Recent work in the domain of cognitive control has revealed that extensive training on a video game that requires multitasking skills led not only to improved cognitive performance in individuals ranging in age from their 20s to their 70s, but also to associated changes in brain activity that were predictive of cognitive improvements 6 months later. 21 Moreover, the study also yielded evidence that training served to remediate age-related deficits in neural markers of cognitive control. Applying such a cognitive neuroscience approach to the phenomena considered here should enhance our understanding of both theoretical and applied aspects of memory function.

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Harris Energizes Democrats in Transformed Presidential Race

1. the presidential matchup: harris, trump, kennedy, table of contents.

• Other findings: Both Harris and Trump are viewed more favorably than a few months ago
• Voting preferences among demographic groups
• How have voters shifted their preferences since July?
• Harris’ supporters back her more strongly than Biden’s did last month
• Large gap in motivation to vote emerges between the candidates’ younger supporters
• Harris and Trump have gained ground with their own coalitions
• Share of ‘double negatives’ drops significantly with change in presidential candidates
• Views of Biden have changed little since his withdrawal from the 2024 presidential race
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Nationally, Vice President Kamala Harris and former President Donald Trump are essentially tied among registered voters in the current snapshot of the presidential race: 46% prefer Harris, 45% prefer Trump and 7% prefer Robert F. Kennedy Jr.

Following Biden’s exit from the race, Trump’s support among voters has remained largely steady (44% backed him in July against Biden, while 45% back him against Harris today). However, Harris’ support is 6 percentage points higher than Biden’s was in July . In addition to holding on to the support of those who backed Biden in July, Harris’ bump has largely come from those who had previously said they supported or leaned toward Kennedy.

Harris performs best among the same demographic groups as Biden. But this coalition of voters is now much more likely to say they strongly support her: In July, 43% of Biden’s supporters characterized their support as strong – today, 62% of Harris’ do.

Overall, many of the same voting patterns that were evident in the Biden-Trump matchup from July continue to be seen today. Harris fares better than Trump among younger voters, Black voters, Asian voters and voters with college degrees. By comparison, the former president does better among older voters, White voters and voters without a college degree.

But Harris performs better than Biden across many of these groups – making the race tighter than it was just a few weeks ago.

• In July, women’s presidential preferences were split: 40% backed Biden, 40% preferred Trump and 17% favored Kennedy. With Harris at the top of the ticket, 49% of women voters now support her, while 42% favor Trump and 7% back Kennedy.
• Among men, Trump draws a similar level of support as he did in the race against Biden (49% today, compared with 48% in July). But the share of men who now say they support Harris has grown (to 44% today, up from 38% last month). As a result, Trump’s 10-point lead among men has narrowed to a 5-point lead today.

Race and ethnicity

Harris has gained substantial ground over Biden’s position in July among Black, Hispanic and Asian voters. Most of this movement is attributable to declining shares of support for Kennedy. Trump performs similarly among these groups as he did in July.

• 77% of Black voters support or lean toward Harris. This compares with 64% of Black voters who said they backed Biden a few weeks ago. Trump’s support is unchanged (13% then vs. 13% today). And while 21% of Black voters supported Kennedy in July, this has dropped to 7% in the latest survey.
• Hispanic voters now favor Harris over Trump by a 17-point margin (52% to 35%). In July, Biden and Trump were tied among Hispanic voters with 36% each.
• By about two-to-one, Asian voters support Harris (62%) over Trump (28%). Trump’s support among this group is essentially unchanged since July, but the share of Asian voters backing Harris is 15 points higher than the share who backed Biden in July.
• On balance, White voters continue to back Trump (52% Trump, 41% Harris), though that margin is somewhat narrower than it was in the July matchup against Biden (50% Trump, 36% Biden).

While the age patterns present in the Harris-Trump matchup remain broadly the same as those in the Biden-Trump matchup in July, Harris performs better across age groups than Biden did last month. That improvement is somewhat more pronounced among voters under 50 than among older voters.

• Today, 57% of voters under 30 say they support Harris, while 29% support Trump and 12% prefer Kennedy. In July, 48% of these voters said they backed Biden. Trump’s support among this group is essentially unchanged. And 12% now back Kennedy, down from 22% in July.
• Voters ages 30 to 49 are now about evenly split (45% Harris, 43% Trump). This is a shift from a narrow Trump lead among this group in July.
• Voters ages 50 and older continue to tilt toward Trump (50% Trump vs. 44% Harris).

With Harris now at the top of the Democratic ticket, the race has become tighter.

Much of this is the result of shifting preferences among registered voters who, in July, said they favored Kennedy over Trump or Biden.

Among the same group of voters surveyed in July and early August, 97% of those who backed Biden a few weeks ago say they support or lean toward Harris today. Similarly, Trump holds on to 95% of those who supported him a few weeks ago.

But there has been far more movement among voters who previously expressed support for Kennedy. While Kennedy holds on to 39% of those who backed him in July, the majority of these supporters now prefer one of the two major party candidates: By about two-to-one, those voters are more likely to have moved to Harris (39%) than Trump (20%). This pattern is evident across most voting subgroups.

In July, Trump’s voters were far more likely than Biden’s voters to characterize their support for their candidate as “strong” (63% vs. 43%). But that gap is no longer present in the Harris-Trump matchup.

Today, 62% of Harris voters say they strongly support her, while about a third (32%) say they moderately support her. Trump’s voters are just about as likely to say they strongly back him today as they were in July (64% today, 63% then).

Kennedy’s voters make up a smaller share of voters today than a month ago – and just 18% of his voters say they strongly support him, similar to the 15% who said the same in July.

Across demographic groups, strong support for Harris is higher than it was for Biden

Among women voters who supported Biden in July, 45% said they did so strongly. That has grown to 65% today among women voters who support Harris.

Increased intensity of support is similar among men voters who back the Democratic candidate: In July, 42% of men voters who supported Biden said they did so strongly. This has since grown to 59% of Harris’ voters who are men.

Across racial and ethnic groups, Harris’ supporters are more likely than Biden’s were to say they back their candidates strongly.

Among White voters, 43% who supported Biden in July did so strongly. Today, Harris’ strong support among White voters sits at 64%.

A near identical share of Harris’ Black supporters (65%) characterize their support for her as strong today. This is up from the 52% of Biden’s Black supporters who strongly backed him in July. Among Harris’ Hispanic supporters, 56% support her strongly, while 45% of Asian Harris voters feel the same. Strong support for Harris among these voters is also higher than it was for Biden in July.

Across all age groups, Harris’ strength of support is higher than Biden’s was. But the shift from Biden is less pronounced among older Democratic supporters than among younger groups.

Still, older Harris voters are more likely than younger Harris voters to describe their support as strong. For instance, 51% of Harris’ voters under 50 say they strongly support her, while 71% of Harris supporters ages 50 and older characterize their support as strong.

Today, about seven-in-ten of both Trump supporters (72%) and Harris supporters (70%) say they are extremely motivated to vote.

Motivation to vote is higher in both the Democratic and Republican coalitions than it was in July .

These shifts have occurred across groups but are more pronounced among younger voters.

Today, half of voters under 30 say they are extremely motivated to vote, up 16 points since July. Motivation is up 11 points among voters ages 30 to 49 and 50 to 64, and up 6 points among those ages 65 and older.

Among the youngest voters, the increased motivation to vote is nearly all driven by shifts among Democratic supporters.

• In July, 38% of 18- to 29-year-old Trump voters said they were extremely motivated to vote. Today, a similar share of his voters (42%) report that level of motivation.
• But 18- to 29-year-old Harris supporters are far more likely to say they are extremely motivated to vote than Biden’s supporters in this age group were about a month ago. Today, 61% of Harris’ voters under 30 say this. In July, 42% of voters under 30 who supported Biden said they were extremely motivated to vote.

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Many americans are confident the 2024 election will be conducted fairly, but wide partisan differences remain, joe biden, public opinion and his withdrawal from the 2024 race, amid doubts about biden’s mental sharpness, trump leads presidential race, americans’ views of government’s role: persistent divisions and areas of agreement, most popular, report materials.

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